**Update, Jan 19 – New**

While most of the 5G network has been switched on, several 5G providers have delayed rolling out services at stations close to the major airports. It isn’t clear how the long the delay is for.

Over the weekend, the US FAA said it had cleared 45 percent of the US commercial aircraft fleet for operation in low-visibility conditions at 48 of the 88 airports directly affected by 5G C-band interference. This latest delay is most likely to allow the FAA to continue confirming the safety consequences at the major airports, after pressure from US and foreign carriers.

**Update, Jan 19**

The big day has arrived for the new 5G networks. They are set to be switched on.

New FAA Notams with operating restrictions at a large number of airports across the US become effective. Make sure you check them for any airport you may be operating at (including alternates) – especially if you are expecting low visibility operations. You may not be able to carry out Cat II/III approaches. You can search for the new Notams here, using the keyword ‘5G.’

Several industry heavy weights have asked the US Government directly to further restrict 5G networks near major airports and the outcome is still pending. Both Verizon and AT&T has reportedly already agreed to limit services near some – more details will follow as they come to hand.

Major international carriers have also begun cancelling or restricting flights to the US until more is known about the safety implications of the new networks.

**Update, Jan 14**

At least 100 airports have Notams banning or restricting operations such as Autolands, HUD usage, or any other manoeuvre reliant on radio altimeters, unless the aircraft is equipped with another means of compliance (with altitude monitoring).

The Autoland ‘ban’ is of significant concern due to its potential impact on safety and efficiency during low visibility and poor weather conditions. This could limit alternate options and result in significant delays and fuel situations if airports are unable to accommodate traffic during these conditions.

Several major airports are impacted including KORD/Chicago, KFDW/Dallas Fort Worth, KIAH/Houston, KJFK/New York, KSEA/Seattle, KBOS/Boston and KLAX/Los Angeles.

The Situation

The US FAA has published a list of fifty major US airports which will have 5G buffers in place to ensure safe operations.

Here’s an update on the latest and what this all means.

Flicking the ‘ON’ Switch

Verizon and AT&T will activate major new 5G networks in the US on January 19. This follows a two-week delay as the industry scrambles to assess just how much of a safety risk this might be to civil aviation.

Powerful new 5G networks will be activated on Jan 19.

The Concern

These new 5G services will operate in a frequency band that is uncomfortably close to what radio altimeters use. This could lead to erroneous signals and mess with safety-critical systems – especially auto land and TAWS.

For more details information on these issues, including how you can mitigate them, see our recent article.

How will these ‘buffer zones’ work?

Both Verizon and AT&T have made an agreement with the FAA to turn off transmitters in close proximity to select major airports for a further six months. During this time the FAA will be able to better assess the potential for interference.

These buffer zones will apply within the last twenty seconds of flying time in all directions from the airport.

FAA Buffer Zone

How did the FAA choose the list?

A number of factors were taken into account. These included traffic volume, how many low visibility days there are each year, and how close the airports were to the new antennas.

Other major airports were not included for various reasons such as those in areas where the networks aren’t being rolled out, ones that are far enough away from the antennas, or  fields with no CAT II/III facilities.

CAT II/III equipment and frequency of fog were two of the factors that helped the FAA decide which airports would be ‘buffered.’

Important US Resources

In recent months the FAA has published a number of important documents for pilots dealing with this looming 5G issue:

• Special Airworthiness Information Bulletin (SAIB AIR-21-18R1) – recommended actions for manufacturers, operators, and pilots.
• Airworthiness Directive (2021-23-12)– for all commuter category airplanes with a radio altimeters. Contains new information about how 5G related hazards will be communicated by Notam.
• FAA Safety Alert (SAFP 21007) – Some more technical information along with which aircraft systems might be affected, and an example of how the new Notams will work.

….for a detailed breakdown of these, click here.

The US isn’t alone.

There have also been some developments north of the border in Canada, where 5G networks are being progressively rolled out.

On Dec 23, Transport Canada published its own Safety Alert (CASA 2021-08) with some important recommendations for pilots. This was the big one – avoid flying RNP AR approaches that are not protected by buffer zones in IMC conditions, unless you have another way to identify terrain (such as weather radar). This is because the TAWS may not be reliable.

What next?

Industry efforts to understand the safety impact to aviation from these networks are ongoing. That means working directly with airlines and manufacturers, and it will take time. Temporary buffer zones help, but long-term solutions are needed.

But there’s 5G in other countries. Why is this such a big issue in the US?

A few reasons. Signal strengths will be much higher in the US than in other countries’ networks around the world.

Other design features and protections in place for aviation overseas have not been mandated on network providers. These include measures such as tilting antennas down, introducing permanent buffer zones, rules on how close antennas can be to airports and reduced power levels.

Other countries have 5G, but the new US networks present some unique challenges. Courtesy: Statista

Stay Updated

There are two places to stay updated as this all develops. The first is the FAA’s official 5G website found here. The NBAA have also published a handy resource you can access by clicking here.

There’s a new rule coming. And it’s about noise.

Both foreign and local operators of certain aircraft carrying out Part 91 and 135 operations to airports in the EU will need to register for EASA’s new Environmental Portal by the end of March 2022 (extended from Dec 31, 2021). They will need to upload important noise data about their specific aircraft.

Here’s a brief guide on what you need to know.

Who does this impact?

All foreign and local Part 91 and 135 operators using airports within the EU, with an aircraft that fits the following categories:

MTOW of 34,000kg (75,000 pounds) or more.

 OR

An aircraft with 19 passenger seats or more. Excluding crew seats. For this category, it’s important to note that EASA looks at the number of passenger seats as per the aircraft type’s certified ability, and not the number of seats actually installed on your particular aircraft – i.e. if you’ve only got 18 pax seats installed, but your aircraft is able to carry more, you’ll need to register for the Environmental Portal.

Yep, that’s us. What exactly do we need to do?

Submit this form via email to environmentalportal@easa.europa.eu.

There are two options for the information you’ll then need to provide:

Either:

 A stand-alone noise certificate issued by a state of registry. It will need to include your aircraft’s reg, its configuration and noise levels.

If your state issues them, a stand-alone noise certificate like this example may be the easiest option.

Or

 Get that scanner warmed up. Pages from your aircraft’s flight manual which provide the following:

• Registration
• Serial number
• Engine variant
• Both MCTOW and MLW
• Airworthiness certificate
• Noise level data (stage/noise levels)

Isn’t this the same thing as the Third Country Operators Portal (TCO)?

Sadly, nope. The info is similar, but this is a separate requirement. The EU has nominated EASA to be the responsible authority tasked with collecting this info in a separate database.

A head’s up for ‘N’-Reg aircraft.

As the FAA doesn’t currently issue stand-alone certificates, that only leaves the second option. Make sure you also carry this information onboard in case you win yourself a ramp check.

What’s this all about?

The shortest answer is noise. The slightly longer one is this:

As traffic levels continue to grow at EU airports, noise is becoming more of a problem. The challenge is how to accommodate this growth in harmony with densely populated areas around airports – especially at night.

As the issue of noise grows in the EU, the challenge is on to find a fair answer.

If sweeping noise restrictions were simply decided on a case-by-case basis, they could interfere with commercial competition or make the whole aviation network less efficient by under-utilising precious capacity.

Instead, ICAO suggests what they call a ‘balanced approach’ to noise. Or in other words, using a coherent and consistent method to measure noise across the board. From there they can use the actual data from aircraft operating in the EU to introduce consistent and fair operating restrictions throughout the EU.

The database is a big part of this. It’s about allowing aviation to grow in a sustainable way. Or in other words, without riling up the neighbours.

Who can actually view the data?

It’s not publicly available. Only the following groups will be able to access it:

• Competent authorities (such as CAAs)
• Air Navigation Service Providers (ANSPs)
• Airport Operators
• Aircraft Operators

They all have to apply for access first too.

Other things to look at (if you’re really keen)

ICAO Resolution A33/7 – a rundown on the idea of a ‘balanced approach’ to noise abatement.

EU Reg No. 598/2014 – skip to article 7. The actual EU regulation.

Speaking of noise – any guesses for the loudest commercial aircraft still in service?

The mighty 727 at 90 decibels. In comparison, when Concorde was flying it would hit 120 decibels – as loud as a clap of thunder.

On January 15, there was a major volcanic eruption in Tonga – an island nation in the South Pacific.

It was perhaps the most explosively violent eruption of the 21st century to date. Since then, the volcano has continued to produce ash as high as FL630 and has potential to continue to cause major flight disruptions throughout the region.

Here’s what you need to know.

Where is it?

The Hunga-Tonga-Hunga-Ha’apai volcano, or just Hunga Volcano for short, is found approximately 30nm north of Tonga’s capital, Nuku’alofa. You won’t find it on maps because it is hidden underwater. It is nestled squarely within the Tonga Trench, and is part of the Pacific’s infamous Ring of Fire – where eruptions and earthquakes come with the territory.

Because it is submerged, the risk to airports in the region is actually two-fold – from ash, and from tsunamis caused by seismic activity under the sea.

The Hunga Volcano is found underwater, just to the north of Nuku’alofa, Tonga.

What has been happening?

The Hunga Volcano has been stirring for a while. In December there were small eruptions which produced ash and disrupted flights at Tonga’s main airport, NFTF/Fua’amotu. Then on January 15, there was a much more violent eruption.

Hunga produced a large ash plume, 150 nm wide and extending up to FL630 well west of Tonga.  The remnant of this cloud is currently over New Caledonia. The current VAAC forecast is good, with ash emission expected to stop.

NFTF/Fua’amotu is currently closed due to ash on the ground, and is expected to re-open at 0630 local on Jan 21 (1730z on Jan 20) but this may well be extended.  Airports nearby – especially in Fiji, New Caledonia and Vanuatu have so far escaped major disruptions.

Hunga’s ash plume reached hundreds of miles west of Tonga.

Over the weekend, widespread Tsunami warnings caused by Hunga were issued for coastlines as far away as South America, the US and Japan. These have since been lifted, however Tonga itself was badly impacted by waves. It remains in a state of emergency and is still cut off from the world as internet and phone services are reportedly down. Reports of damage are still coming through.

The majority of major airports in the South Pacific Islands are at or near sea-level which leaves them especially vulnerable to this threat. They are also very remote. If Hunga erupts again, widespread closures could happen with little notice.

Hunga’s Tsunami threat puts low level airports at risk throughout the South Pacific.

Outlook

While things have started to subside since the eruption, it’s not clear whether this was a one-off, or if we are in the middle of an ‘eruptive sequence.’ In other words, there may be more to come.

Stay Updated

VAAC Wellington handles volcanic alerts for the South Pacific region. You can view new advisories as they are issued, here.

The US FAA has released a brief statement confirming that on Jan 10, a ground stop was put in place at major airports on the West Coast due to “precautionary measures.”

Around the same time, North Korea carried out a missile test – the second in a week. The missile landed well off the coast of the Korean Peninsula, in the Sea of Japan.

It is now being widely speculated that the two events were likely related, however no authority has confirmed this as fact.

A brief statement issued by the FAA.

Here’s what happened.

At approx. 14:30 PST (2230z) on January 10, a ground stop was ordered by the FAA at airports throughout the Western United States. There are also reports of airborne aircraft being directed to land.

The disruption was short lived (about twenty minutes), before operations went back to normal.

The speculation about why the ground stop came into effect arose for three reasons;

• Information on why a ground stop is in place is usually provided
• The air traffic control measure is generally used to slow or stops the flow of aircraft to a particular airport, due to weather or an operational hazard. This one impacted all west coast airports, and airborne aircraft
• An unannounced test launch of a missile took place in North Korea, landing approximately 400nm off the coast around the same time.

The missile landed over 400nm from the North Korean coastline.

Hypersonic missiles

North Korea state outlet KCNA has claimed these latest two tests were hypersonic missiles. Of course, North Korean is known for its own propaganda…

Source: The Economist

But hypersonic missiles are dangerous, for two main reasons:

• Unlike ballistic missiles, which have a fairly predictable trajectory, hypersonic missiles can fly much closer to the earth’s surface and are more difficult to intercept.
• Hypersonic missiles can travel up to five times the speed of sound, meaning they can hit a target in a much shorter flight time.

Only a handful of countries are reported to be working on the development of hypersonic missiles: the US, Russia, India, and China, and North Korea.

What could explain it.

The launch in North Korea was not announced beforehand, and it is possible that it was detected as a threat leading to the activation of protocols that include notifying the FAA.

Although this looks likely, it’s important to remember that nothing official has been announced to confirm this yet.  The North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) have since advised that it did not issue an official warning.

It did however detect the launch, which was assessed not to be a danger to the mainland US. It is also standard procedure for the FAA to be in constant contact with them and so the FAA may have been compelled to act as a precaution.

NORAD advise they didn’t instruct the FAA to close airspace, but detected and were monitoring the launch.

The North Korean Missile Threat.

There have been several test launches carried out from North Korea in the past six months. These are typically intended to be a display of capability, rather than an intent to use them.

For aviation the threat is primarily based in the oceanic portions of the ZKKP/Pyongyang FIR, and UHHH/Khabarovsk FIRs west of Japan. As the launches have repeatedly been carried out with no advance warning, aircraft are exposed to risk from falling debris from missile tests. You can find more information on this in a previous article which you can read here.

Outlook for 2022

Most experts seem to agree that North Korea faces some big challenges on the home front this year, including its economy and a worsening humanitarian crisis. Its missile program has continued and there has been no recent reassurance that it intends to work on bettering its relationship with the US, or South Korea, nor any intent to provide advance warning of test launches.

These events might not be related, but the speculation itself demonstrates an ongoing concern regarding North Korean actions. The events of January 10 also show how a large impact on US airspace with little or no warning can, and does occasionally occur, and is a reminder to all operators to have policies and preparations in place for dealing with such events.

Do you have more intel, or were you flying as it happened?

We’d love to hear from you. You can reach us at team@ops.group.

Conflict zone risk assessments aren’t easy. Airspace dangers are heavily dependent on what is happening on the ground, which can improve or deteriorate quickly and with little warning. For an aircraft to be at risk, there must be someone present who has both the ability and intent to either deliberately target an airplane, or endanger one indirectly.

But in order to prove that these two things are present in any given airspace, regulators and operators have to rely on intelligence and inherently limited information to make educated decisions about what is safe, and what is not.

The best defence? Know what is happening down there. Or in other words, an idea of the geo-politics playing out thousands of feet beneath you. Often the warning signs are there, even before Notams have had a chance to catch up. The best defence is always situational awareness.

Here is a summary of some the conflicts making headlines that are worth keeping a close eye on in 2022 which may have an impact on the safety of overflights.

Keep an eye on these existing and emerging conflicts in 2022.

Ukraine

Tensions are high near the eastern border with Russia right now. In the latter half of 2021, the Russian military began to mobilise equipment and troops on their side of the border. This has continued to cause international concern that a major offensive may be possible in 2022.

There is advanced anti-aircraft weaponry present on both sides of the border which could present risks to civil aviation at all levels if things escalate. There are also separatist groups active in the region, and it is possible they have access to the same weapons. MH17 was shot down in this region in similar circumstances in 2014.

Overflights near the border – especially in the western part of the URRV/Rostov FIR near the UKDV/Dnipro FIR boundary should keep monitoring the situation closely.

FAA SFAR 113 prohibits US operators from entering an eastern portion of the Dnipro FIR due to a risk of anti-aircraft fire.

Click here for a full briefing.

Israel/Palestine

Events in April-May 2021 lead to a sudden escalation involving hundreds of Hamas rockets being fired at Tel Aviv and Israeli air strikes in Gaza. Civilian traffic was heavily impacted, while LLBG/Tel Aviv airport was forced to close on several occasions.

Recent events have hinted that things may be no better in 2022. On Jan 1, several rockets were fired at Tel Aviv, followed by airstrikes in Gaza. Surface-to-air missiles were launched at military helicopters during the strikes.

Aircraft in the LLLL/Tel Aviv FIR may continue to be at risk from these types of events with little notice this year.

Click here for a full briefing.

Taiwan

Mainland China continues to show political interest in Taiwan. While an armed conflict is still unlikely, it is not impossible. And the consequences of one would be a big deal with other major world players likely to become involved.

Last year a record number of Chinese military aircraft carried out exercises near Taiwanese airspace, while in October a wave of aircraft entered Taiwan’s air defence identification zone (ADIZ). This caused authorities to issue warnings by radio and mobilise their air defence systems.

In 2022, the primary risk to aircraft in the region continues to be risk of being misidentified by the Taiwanese military. It is important to follow the correct procedures when entering Taiwan’s ADIZ airspace.

Click here for a full briefing.

Iran

Tensions between Israel and Iran are at an all time high. Various sources are speculating that airstrikes on nuclear targets in Iran could rapidly escalate the situation. If this were to happen, the overflight risk in the OIIX/Tehran FIR would increase dramatically. Anti-aircraft weapons are present there that can reach all levels. Iran has previously shown willingness to use them during heightened tensions and in close proximity to heavily flown international air routes. In January 2020, a Ukrainian 737 passenger jet was shot down over Tehran by the military after being mistaken for a missile.

Click here for a full briefing.

Militant activity in Africa

Militant groups throughout several African countries with links to terrorist organisations such as Al Qaeda or Al Shabaab have been mobilising in recent years. Often engaged in fighting with weakened states, these militia may have a desire to make international statements, and are known to actively target civilians which could include overflying aircraft.

Hotspots to look out for: In the west, Nigeria, Mali and Burkina Faso. In Central Africa, Niger, Chad and the Democratic Republic of Congo. And to the east, take particular care when operating over the Horn of Africa – especially Somalia and Sudan. New groups are also emerging in Mozambique, and Uganda.

These groups typically have access to man portable air defence systems (MANPADS), rockets and other similar weapons that pose a primary threat to aircraft at lower levels (below FL250). Although this should be considered carefully on a case-by-case basis.

Courtesy: Small Arms Survey

Other mentions

In Libya, an election has been delayed indefinitely and armed groups are mobilising throughout country, which could see the civil war escalate in 2022.

The conflict in the Tigray region of Northern Ethiopia remains unpredictable. Despite signs of improvement in Dec 2021, the conflict in the north has intensified again with military operations in western and southern Tigray. The Amhara region north of Addis Ababa is also under curfew. The 6 month state of emergency remains in place. Several states continue to warn aircraft throughout the HAAA/Addis FIR to maintain minimum flight levels due to anti-aircraft weaponry.

The situation in Afghanistan also remains volatile for 2022. The country is firmly under Taliban control, and the OAKX/Kabul FIR without ATC. A humanitarian crisis is developing there and it’s hard to predict what the international response (if any) will be, and how the Taliban might respond. Watch this space.

Stay updated

Safeairspace.net is our conflict zone and risk database. Our team updates it constantly with risk, security and hazard alerts from around the world. Click below for a full PDF briefing on hotspots around the world, or add your email to our risk briefing that goes out every second Monday.

Click the image above for a full PDF risk briefing from Safe Airspace.

On December 20, an airstrike was carried out on Yemen’s major airport, OYSN/Sanaa by Saudi-led coalition forces.

It follows months of persistent drone attacks launched by Houthi Rebels on targets in Southern Saudi Arabia – the latest being on December 19.

At the time of writing, it isn’t clear how badly the airport was damaged. However, no reports have emerged yet of any significant disruptions to civil traffic.

But does this attack represent an increase in risk to civil aviation inside the OYSC/Sanaa FIR? Let’s take a closer look.

The situation.

Yemen is an active conflict zone and has been since 2014. Houthi rebels in Yemen are at war both at home and with Saudi Arabia – who lead a coalition of countries from North Africa and West Asia. If you’d like to read a little more about the background of the conflict, a good starting point would be here.

The war itself is in stalemate and so while the attack on OYSN was unexpected, it is not the first time it has happened.

In fact, the airport was also attacked and badly damaged in similar coalition airstrikes back in 2017 and 2018.

So why now?

The Houthi’s primary means of attacking Saudi Arabia continues to be through the use of weaponised drones. The attacks have been happening on an almost daily basis recently and are a persistent threat to Saudi Arabia.

The weapons they are using are becoming increasingly sophisticated and are supplied to the Houthi from other political interests in the region.

Weaponised drones are persistently used to target Southern Saudi Arabia.

Despite having sophisticated air defence systems, the challenge for Saudi Arabia is to work out how to stop these attacks.

Drone launches from Sana’a Airport

The Houthi have control over a large section of Western Yemen which includes the capital, Sanaa (and its airport). Recent intelligence has shown that the Houthi are using sites at the airport to store and launch these drones. It is these sites that were targeted in the December 20 airstrike.

The Dec 20 airstrike was targeting military sites at the airport believed to be for for storing and launching drones.

Changes to Risk

In terms of overflights of the OYSC/Sanaa FIR, the December 20 airstrike hasn’t changed anything – Yemeni airspace was, and still is, extremely dangerous. Several states (including the US) ban operators from entering it due to the risk of anti-aircraft fire from militant groups at all levels. The only exceptions are airways well off the coast – primarily UT702 and M999.

US operators are banned from the OYSC/Sanaa FIR apart from airways M999 and UT702 which are both well off the coast.

But when it comes to operations in and out of OYSN airport itself, these events may indicate a renewed threat. Of particular concern is that the Houthi seem to have been carrying out cross-border military offensives in very close proximity to civil aviation.

The risk of this is two-fold:

• The airport may continue to be targeted by coalition airstrikes which can occur without warning and with little regard for civilian traffic.
• The Houthi may have a renewed intent on protecting the airport using anti-aircraft weaponry which puts civil aircraft at risk from being misidentified or mis-targeted while operating over or near the airport.

What type of air defence systems do the Houthi have?

In recent years there has been credible evidence that the Houthi have been supplied with advanced anti-aircraft weaponry by proxy, along with aircraft tracking systems that could pose a threat to aircraft at all levels.

There have also been several unverified claims made by the Houthi during the conflict that they successfully shot down numerous military aircraft – although these are sometimes known to be false.

Either way, the December 20 airstrike may serve to encourage their intent to protect their airspace.

Want to know more?

Safeairspace.net is our conflict zone and risk database. Head over there for a full briefing on the OYSC/Sana’a FIR, along with a summary of major state warnings for Yemeni airspace.

You can also add your email to our Airspace Risk Update that is issued once a fortnight – only what you need to know, and zero spam. Click here for that.

The US has tightened its entry protocols in response to the new Omicron Covid strain – effective Dec 6. It affects anyone over two years old. Here’s a brief summary of the changes.

A shorter window

All inbound passengers to the US (including citizens) must now get a Covid test within just one day of their flight’s departure – previously this was three days. This applies to everyone, regardless of whether they are vaccinated. The only exemption is for those who can prove they have recovered from Covid within the previous ninety days.

What type of tests are accepted?

Compared to some countries, the US rules are pretty flexible, with most types of Covid test accepted:

• PCR – the gold standard everywhere. Brace yourself for a stick up the nose and a longer wait for the results.
• RT-LAMP tests
• TMA tests
• NEAR tests
• HAD tests

Ever wonder why the US entry rules are based on days, not hours?

It is to provide more flexibility for passengers – things get can pretty specific when you’re counting minutes.

Do pax need to quarantine on arrival?

This one has come up quite often. It’s never been mandated – the CDC recommends that international arrivals self-isolate for 7 days if you’re not vaccinated with additional testing. If you don’t want to be tested this is extended to ten days.

Mask up

Yep, at all times on an airplane. This mandate has just been extended until March 18, 2022. So, it’s not going anywhere in a hurry. Be careful too, hefty fines apply.

He was ahead of his time, but Covid safe – the rules say pax need to keep masked up until at least March next year….

New travel bans

The Omicron Covid variant was first detected in South Africa, with cases observed in several other southern African countries which is why the majority of the world jumped to implementing travel restrictions from this area. These countries include South Africa, Botswana, Eswatini, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia and Zimbabwe.

The US is no exception – non-US citizens who have been in one of these places in the last 14 days cannot enter.

Crew rules

There have been no indications that the new rules will affect crew. For these, you can read the CDC guidelines here. Essentially, if you’re operating or positioning then you should be good. To dispel any confusion, it might be helpful to carry a letter from your employer along with a declaration of your exemption – the folk at NBAA prepared a form earlier this year which may be useful to get the message across.

Remember though that the exemption rules don’t apply to deadheading crew or those travelling for training, such as recurrent sims. You’ll need to meet the same requirements as pax.

Looking for official guidance? The CDC is where you need to start.

You can access that here.

A new and reliable technology is being steadily introduced across the world that stands poised to eventually replace the humble ILS all together.

In fact it has already been rolled-out to well over one hundred major airports. It’s called GBAS, or Ground Based Augmentation System if you want to get fancy. And it enables pilots to fly GLS approaches – a different type of precision approach that can get you all the way down to CAT I minima.

From a pilot’s perspective, flying a GLS approach is pretty much identical to flying an ILS approach which is why hardly any extra training is required. But what is the actual difference? And why are GLS approaches arguably much better?

Let’s take a closer look.

What’s wrong with the good ol’ ILS?

Believe it or not, it has been with us since the 1930s, and it hasn’t changed much since then. Put simply, technology is beginning to move on.

The conventional ILS has been around since the 1930s.

A conventional ILS uses a complicated array of antennas for each runway to broadcast two frequency lobes for both the localiser and the glide slope. Where the two meet in the middle is exactly where we want to be. Simples.

But the problem is that these antennas must be located close to the runway. Which means vehicles or other aircraft can easily interfere with the signal causing the ILS to fluctuate, and our fully coupled airplanes to suddenly or erratically deviate off-course.

These are known as critical areas and are usually only protected from interference during low visibility operations.

There are some other disadvantages too. The glideslope of an ILS cannot be easily adjusted which means when there is a displaced threshold, it cannot be used. The upkeep of all the equipment can also be expensive and time-consuming requiring multiple flight tests and calibrations.

So, in recent years, the industry began to look for something better and they found it – the GLS.

ILS approaches require complex arrays of localiser and glideslope antennas for each runway.

How does it work?

This ain’t no radio shack, so let’s keep things simple.

GLS stands for GBAS Landing System and uses equipment on the ground to augment or ‘enhance’ the accuracy of conventional GPS signals within 23nm of an airport, allowing aircraft to fly a precision approach. It is incredibly precise.

A GBAS landing system uses much less equipment than a conventional ILS – and there only needs to be one set up for all runways.

Essentially it consists of three things – a bunch of GPS antennas on the ground, a sophisticated computer and a VHF data antenna. That’s it. They don’t even need to be near a runway.

GBAS GPS antenna at Sydney Airport.

Here’s where things start to get a little tech-y. The GPS antennas receive signals from GPS satellites and measure how long they took to arrive. This is converted into a distance. The computer already knows the exact location of the antennas and exactly where the satellites are, and so it compares the calculated distance with the actual distance and voila, it can figure out the position error in the signal.

It takes an average of these errors across all antennas and sends a correction by VHF up to any GBAS capable aircraft which are tuned in. And hey presto, uber accuracy! In other words, the computer is constantly calculating errors in the GPS signal and fires off correction data twice a second to anyone up there who is in range and listening.

GBAS in action – GPS antennas, a computer and a VHF antenna.

This extremely accurate signal can be used to fly precision approaches. In the flight deck they are flown in the exact same way as an ILS. The only real difference is that the pilots are tuning a five-digit channel number, rather than a frequency. And they don’t need to worry about interference.

Just how accurate is GLS?

Very. It comfortably meets ICAO’s requirements for CAT I approaches i.e., 16m (52’)  laterally, and 4m (13’) vertically. But the majority of the time, the position error is less than a meter.

Advantages

Okay so the tech is fancy. But what are the actual hard advantages to a conventional ILS?

• The major one we’ve touched on already is interference. ILS signals are prone to it while GLS signals are rock-solid stable.
• There is much less equipment. One GBAS set up costs about as much as a single ILS but can cater for up to 46 different approaches to different runway ends or multiple approaches onto a single runway.
• The approaches can be curved to avoid terrain or noise sensitive areas.
• The vertical profile can be easily adjusted. So GLS approached can continue to be used even with a displaced threshold.
• Flight checking of a GBAS system is simple and maintenance very easy. This saves dosh for airport operators.

Any disadvantages?

Yep – not everyone has the right gear on board to be able to shoot a GLS approach. You’ll need GBAS capable avionics incorporated into a Multi-Mode Receiver for the magic to happen. While this is quickly becoming standard on airliners, this may not be the case in older aircraft.

As one GBAS system can hold up to 46 different GLS approaches it is important that pilots ensure they cross check that they have the correct procedure tuned. They can do that by cross checking the approach ID on the plate.

Be sure to cross check the approach ID and channel number to what you have put in the box.

CAT IIIC is coming…

Work is ongoing to produce a GBAS system so accurate that it will allow landings in zero visibility. Quite a lot still needs to happen to get to the technology to this level including improved integrity monitoring and robustness. But it will be on the scene in the not-too distant future. Watch this space.

What the WAAS?

If there is one thing aviation can’t get enough of, it’s acronyms. It can make you cross-eyed. So here are a couple of clarifications while we’re at it.

GBAS used to be called LAAS in the US – which stands for Local-area Augmentation System. GBAS is the new term, so don’t worry too much about LAAS.

WAAS is different – it stands for Wide Area Augmentation System. It’s beyond the scope of this article but works using satellites to enhance the accuracy of GPS signals over a much wider area – like the entire US NAS. Look out for an article on this tech soon.

Other handy things…

• The US FAA’s write-up on how GBAS works can be found here.
• Click here for some more info from the folk at Skybrary.

On October 22, the US FAA cancelled a long standing Notam that barred US operators from entering the ORBB/Baghdad FIR at all levels (KICZ A0036/21).

The standard SFAR for Iraq now applies, which allows overflights at or above FL320. But does that mean it’s safe?

Iraq remains an active conflict zone which exposes aviation to high levels of risk. So, let’s take a look at the dangers of operating in the Baghdad FIR and why those risks should continue to be carefully considered at all levels before you decide to overfly.

US Operators can now overfly the Baghdad FIR at or above FL320, but need to be aware of the risks.

Hang on, why was there both a SFAR and a Notam in the first place?

The political and security environment in Iraq is unpredictable. Local and foreign military continue to fight against an armed insurgency there. Things can change quickly.

To allow the FAA more flexibility with the rules, they published the Notam (now cancelled) with extra restrictions over and above the SFAR.

The idea was that they could continually assess the threat to US aircraft in Iraqi airspace, and easily reduce restrictions again to allow some operations to continue through this air corridor. This is where we are now.

But the overflight risk remains.

The primary risk to overflying aircraft hasn’t changed. Terrorist groups are still very much active in Iraq and may intentionally target civil aircraft with anti-aircraft weaponry. They are known to have conventional man portable air defence systems (MANPADS) – the ones you can move around and launch from your shoulder. These were previously assessed to reach aircraft as high as FL260, but the danger zone was later increased by the FAA to FL320.

Why?

Because these groups are being funded and armed by other political interests in the Middle East with increasingly sophisticated weapons.

Case in point. On October 21, news broke that militia in Iraq may have access to a new type high tech anti-aircraft missile. Intelligence suggests that it is ‘loitering’, or in other words that it hangs around for a while before selecting a target. While such a weapon hasn’t been used yet in Iraq, the evidence that it is there is credible.

Militant groups are being supplied with increasingly advanced surface-to-air weaponry that can reach higher and further than ever before – such as this example of a ‘loitering’ weapon found recently in Iraq.

The same militia also have a long track record of targeting US military interests at airports such as ORBI/Baghdad with rockets. We have reported on such attacks more than a dozen times already this year alone.

Don’t forget about the military – at all levels.

Iraq is an active conflict zone, so foreign and local military have their own air defences too.

The US military have systems that can reach higher than anyone can realistically fly, while the Iraqi military have surface-to-air missiles that can target aircraft as high as FL490.

In the last 12 months, there has been an increase in the use of weaponised drones by militant groups. Which means that if these air defence systems are used to target them, it may increase the risk that civil aircraft are misidentified or mis-targeted – or in other words, being in the wrong place at the wrong time.

Other recent events.

The ability is clear, but what about the intent?

It’s important to remember that airspace risk can change quickly, based on what is happening on the ground. (Not just in Iraq, but everywhere.)

And in Iraq, there are two things to be aware of in recent times…

• The first is that Iraq is still politically unstable. There was a big election on Oct 10 which has since been disputed. Militant groups found themselves on the wrong side of the result, which may imply an increasing desire to make some kind of statement.
• The second is that the US Government has committed to withdraw US troops from Iraq by the end of 2021. As that time draws closer, political tensions are likely to rise. If anything, recent events in Afghanistan may serve as a warning of things to come.

A disputed election held on Oct 10 has lead to widespread political unrest. This may have increased the risk of terrorism as a form of statement.

I still want to overfly. Are some areas safer than others?

Based on active airspace warnings alone, authorities in France and the UK agree that eastern airways UL602 (between TAMSI and ALPET), UM860 and UM688 are generally acceptable – but as always, it is up to operators to carry out their own risk assessments. The US FAA regs don’t define any specific region and consider the risk present below FL320 throughout the entire Baghdad FIR.

Want a full briefing?

Just click here. Safeairspace.net is our conflict zone and risk database run by OPSGROUP. We continually assess the risk to operators the world over. It presents that information in a way that will always be simple, clear, and free. You can also add your email to our new fortnightly airspace risk briefing that contains only what you need to know, delivered every second Monday.

The US Government has revealed big changes to entry requirements. From November 8, all non-US citizens/residents will need to be fully vaccinated to enter the US – from anywhere. For Americans, the rules around pre-travel testing will be tightened too.

Here’s a quick rundown of how this will all work.

For Foreigners

Starting November 8, any foreigner who wants to board a flight to the US will need to prove that they have been fully vaccinated. This means that they will need to have received a full dose of either an FDA or WHO approved vaccine at least a full 14 days prior.

FDA and WHO approved vaccines will be accepted.

Exemptions

Spoiler alert: there are hardly any. A very small list of unvaccinated foreigners will be allowed to enter.

This includes people participating in vaccine trials, those with medical conditions or anyone travelling on non-tourist visas from countries where vaccines aren’t readily available. Exemptions may also be granted for humanitarian or emergency reasons with approval from the US Government in the form of a letter.

Seven days of self-quarantine and additional testing may be required.

Don’t forget the kids.

Anyone under 18 will be exempt from the vaccine mandate. Instead they will need a pre-departure test. If their guardian(s) are fully vaccinated this can be done within three days of departure. If they’re travelling with an unvaccinated adult or alone, this is reduced to just one day.

For US Citizens and Residents

The vaccine mandate will not apply. But the rules around pre-travel testing are being tightened.

From the same date, any US citizen or resident who isn’t fully vaccinated will need to a negative viral test (PCR or Antigen) within just one day of departure. Those who have had the vaccine will still need to get a pre-travel test too. But they will have the existing three days to do so.

What about Crew?

Both foreign and local crew entering the US will be exempt from these new rules. Instead they will need to continue following existing CDC guidelines which you can read here.

Both foreign and US-based crew will be exempt from the new mandate.

Contact Tracing

There will also be a new requirement for air operators to collect contact information from all passengers and provide it to CDC ‘quick smart’ –  just in case they need to get in touch with anyone. More details on this are set to follow.

Travel Ban

November 8 is a big day for US borders for another reason too. For the first time since the start of the pandemic the entry ban on passengers from the UK, Ireland, much of Western Europe, China, Iran, Brazil, South Africa, and India is finally being lifted. You can read more about that announcement in our recent article here.

Handy Links

The official Presidential announcement of the vaccine mandate.

The official CDC Guidance on the new rules, including a useful FAQ section.

Ah, Singapore. The Lion City. Home to chilli mud crab, Clarke Quay, Raffles and some of the most confusing entry rules we have ever seen.

If you’re feeling particularly motivated, they’re all found on the official Safe Travel website. But brace yourself for bewilderment…

Or you could try this summary. It is a super simple break down of how the current entry rules work for passengers and crew alike. So hop aboard the Singapore Flyer and crack open a fresh Tiger Beer. We promise it’ll be a smooth ride.

Lanes, Lanes and more Lanes

All foreigners must apply for entry using an approved ‘travel lane’. Then they’ll get an approval letter before they travel.

For the vast majority of foreigners, the options are limited. There are lanes for those who live in Singapore, have immediate family there, study there or work there.

Surprisingly there is no general lane for business travel. Only ones with special rules for travellers from select Asian countries.

Which means the vast majority of foreigners headed to Singapore right now will only be using one lane – The Vaccinated Travel Lane, and it’s only for countries who have been good. It made headlines this week because the US, Canada, and the UK among others have been added to it.

Travellers from these countries can enter for any reason – as long as they’re vaccinated. So, let’s take a closer look.

The Vaccinated Travel Lane (VTL)

As the name suggests, all passengers must be fully vaccinated at least two weeks before they arrive. Click here for those requirements.

Passengers will need to prove it with either:

• From the US and Canada: The SMART Health Card
• From the EU: The EU Digital Covid Certificate
• From the UK: The NHS Covid Pass

All passengers need to apply at least 7 days in advance to use the VTL. Don’t leave it until the last minute!

Here’s what they’ll need:

• Their pre-approval.
• A PCR test less than 48 hours prior to departure.
• A PCR test on arrival (book and pay beforehand).
• Travel insurance which includes at least $30K cover for Covid.

On arrival they will need to self-isolate in their hotel until the result comes back (about 24 hours). That’s it!

Can private aircraft use the VTL?

Great question – yes! Despite causing some confusion among FBOs there, Singapore’s CAA have clarified this with a new circular. If you’re operating a charter flight there, make sure you follow the rules. This includes getting approval from CAAS – apply at least a week in advance.

Jet Aviation, the handling agent based at WSSL/Singapore Seletar Airport, provided this FAQ on Oct 18, which includes some good info here:

1. How do business jet pax apply for VTL?
   a) Foreign passengers must hold a valid VTP (Safe Travel). Take note that the trip must be a direct flight from VTL country to Singapore.
   Click on this link to apply for VTP – https://eservices.ica.gov.sg/STO/VTL
   **Recommended Internet Browser to be used – Google Chrome**
   Once approved, an email by Safe Travel will be sent to passengers via the contact details provided (eg. passenger’s email address).
   Alternatively, operators can “Check VTP status” (as shown above)
   b) Once VTP is approved, another application to CAAS must be submitted at https://go.gov.sg/nsvtl1
   CAAS VTL application for entry should be made at least 7 calendar days before the start of the flight, and approvals will be issued at least 2 calendar days before the indicated start date of the flight.
2. In case of fuel stops, does the routing below qualify for VTL?
   VTL country > non-VTL country (fuel stop) > Singapore.
   (for example, London (origin) > Dubai (fuel stop) > Singapore. Is this a VTL?)
   No, this route arrangement does not qualify for VTL. Arriving from a VTL country, you must do a tech stop in another VTL country to qualify for VTL.
3. What happens if there is a diversion of flight?
   VTL will not qualify if a flight is diverted from VTL country, to a non-VTL country, prior to arriving in Singapore.
4. Can VTL be applied to Part 135 flights?
   Yes. Please ensure FOP and AT permits are in place first before VTP can be applied for the passengers.
5. Do foreign crew qualify for VTL?
   CAAS strongly recommends crew to apply for entry into Singapore via existing schemes. The different types of entry approval for crew are as follows:
   — CAAS BAGA LAYOVER (for non-scheduled flights)
   — CAAS ANNEX A C33 LAYOVER (for maintenance flights only)
   However, foreign crew does qualify if they apply via https://safetravel.ica.gov.sg/vtl/requirements-and-process.
6. Maintenance-related aircraft?
   Crew under VTP can perform post-maintenance Local Test Flights in Singapore.
7. Will Long-Term Pass Holders (eg, EP), need both MOM approval and VTP?
   Yes. LTP Holders must obtain the necessary approvals to enter Singapore (applies to both Commercial Airlines and Non-Scheduled).
8. Do passengers still need to have MTI and PBP passes?
   Yes. Passengers who have existing MTI and Pre-approved Business Passes approval must also apply for VTP to qualify for VTL. All passengers (if there are more than 01 passenger) must be fully vaccinated.
   We must emphasize that the purpose of VTL is to exempt passengers from serving SHN in Singapore.
9. Are Guam and Hawaii considered part of the US territory, for VTL?
   Both Hawaii and Guam are considered part of the US continent. As such, tech stops at Guam are allowed for flights carrying VTL passengers.
10. Are Monaco and Vatican City considered part of France or Italy?
    As for Monaco and Vatican City, these are city-states, and are not part of France or Italy respectively, so travel history for these locations within the last 14 days would disqualify pax from the VTL scheme currently.

Crew Layovers

So, you’ve scored yourself a layover in Singapore eh? Nice work! There are two options for crew:

The “I’d like to isolate in my hotel room” option.

 Then follow the standard procedures found in CAAS Circular 2021/08. Both operating and positioning crew are allowed.

You’ll need CAAS approval – make sure you apply at least two weeks in advance by emailing CAAS_FS_FOS@caas.gov.sg. When you get there, make sure you all have three bits of paper – your approval, a letter from your operator to say you are on layover and your crew passes.

For transport to your hotel you can only use one transport company – Woodlands Transport Service. You must then isolate in one of two hotels – the Crowne Plaza Changi Airport, or the Holiday Inn Orchard City Centre. Both are decent.

This is probably the easiest option if you’re staying for less than 24 hours.

The “I’m sick of isolating, I want to enjoy my layover” option.

We don’t blame you. In which case your only option is the Vaccinated Travel Lane – you’ll need to meet all the same requirements as the passengers including pre-approval, and *24 hours of isolation.

* you have to isolate until you get the SMS with a negative PCR test result. This is likely to arrive within 24 hours, but for scheduled arrivals at Changi airport it is taking 6 hours or less (reportedly as few as 2).

So probably only worth the fuss it if you’re staying for longer.

Crew can apply to enter the VTL too so you can enjoy your layover.

The Other Lanes

If you’ve made it this far, well done! If you’re only interested in the VTL the show ends here. But if you’re carrying passengers in other lanes, there’s one more thing you should know about – travel categories.

For almost all other lanes, testing and self-quarantine is required. The rules depend on where you have been in the last 14 days (including transit). Singapore divides the world up into four categories – 1 is the lowest risk, and 4 is the highest. The length of quarantine and where you have to do it depends on where you have been. You can find those breakdowns here.

We’re here to help.

Navigating entry rules in these times can be confusing and frustrating. If you still have questions reach out to us on team@ops.group, and we’ll do our best to help you find the answer you’re looking for.

Headed to Seletar?

We wrote an article on ops there recently, check it out here.

From October 15 until late November, major work is taking place on the threshold of YSSY/Sydney’s world famous Runway 16R – the most used, widest and longest runway at Australia’s busiest airport.

During that time it will not be available for any arrivals (around the clock), and there will be a reduced length for departures.

Here’s a quick rundown of what this means for operations at the airport, and what to expect if you’re visiting the Emerald City in the coming months.

Crunch time

The threshold slab is over half a century old. Pavement failures have been on the rise leading to FOD damage and temporary repairs have become a common occurrence. With things being quieter at the moment, the airport is finally biting the bullet and replacing it completely.

Airport authorities looked at simply displacing the threshold for Runway 16R for arrivals but decided that operationally it wasn’t safe or efficient. So instead, procedures at the airport will temporarily change.

Arrivals

In southerly conditions (which is half the time), all arriving aircraft can expect to land on the shorter Runway 16L. It has 8,000’/2438m of hard stuff, and is narrower at 148’/45m wide. The ILS is CAT 1 only.

First of all, carry extra fuel. With all arrivals being sequenced for one runway, you can expect extensive holding and/or slow-downs during peak times. Just like the freeways, these are early morning and early evening.

Wide body traffic can expect to vacate at T6 – right down the far end. From there it’s a much lengthier (and potentially confusing) taxi to the international side of the airport which may see you cross two active runways. Remember that progressive taxi instructions are always available if you’re unfamiliar with the airport.

Runway 07/25 is also available if you need it operationally, and it is around the same length. You’ll need to request this early from ATC. Remember to use the phrase ‘operationally required’ – it will help ATC to accommodate your request.

In northerly conditions, Runway 34L will still be used for arrivals at reduced length. The LDA will be approx. 11480’/3500m. Expect to see workers and trucks at the far end. Also, a head’s up – the ILS won’t be available during the works. The GLS approach will still be an option, but if you can’t fly one in your ride, you’ll need to do an RNAV approach. They’ll cancel work for the day and switch the ILS back on if things are starting to look murky out there.

Here’s a picture of what this all looks like:

Departures

You will still be able to depart from Runway 16R, but you’ll need to roll from between taxiways Foxtrot and Golf.  Small jets and turbo props may be be cleared for take off from Foxtrot, but heavier jets can expect to taxi forward to Golf first due to jet blast. TORA from there is 9347’/2849m.

And here’s what that looks like:

Wet Season

Sydney can experience severe convective thunderstorms late in the year (the warmer months down under). If the winds are southerly, and there are thunderstorms forecast it’s time to think extra hard about fuel planning during this time.

Being part of one the busiest air corridors in the world, and with only a single runway for arrivals the queue may begin to back up in a hurry during storms. Extensive holding times and diversions are not uncommon in these conditions.

There are a few decent options as alternates, but they’re not right next door. The closest is YSCB/Canberra (132nm). A few things to think about though – it can be a challenging place in bad conditions due to the high terrain that surrounds it. Apron space can also become limited if it is receiving lots of diversions.

Most international operators use one of the below:

• YMML/Melbourne (384nm) to the south.
• YBCG/Gold Coast (368nm) and YBBN/Brisbane (395nm) to the north.

Diversion options for Sydney

Looking for the official word?

YSSY Notam H5212/21 is the place to start. IFALPA has also published a Safety Bulletin based on the info available from airport authorities.

Caution! This is previous year info – 2023 to come!

If you’re headed to Las Vegas in October, look out for special airspace procedures at three main airports – KLAS/Las Vegas, KVGT/North Las Vegas and especially KHND/Henderson Executive.

What’s going on?

The NBAA Business Aviation Convention & Exhibition (‘BACE’ for those in the know) is happening at KHND/Henderson Executive airport from Oct 12-14, and things are going to get busy.

To keep the traffic flowing, the FAA has published special airspace procedures you’ll need to know about. They will apply from 14z on Oct 8 until 06z on Oct 14.

Here’s how they work.

Watch how you file.

For starters if you’re within 100nm of Las Vegas don’t try to pick up an IFR clearance once airborne.

In fact, they want all flight plans bound for any of the three major airports filed at least 12 hours in advance (but no more than 22). Any requests to change destinations between the airports once wheels up will be denied.

There may also be other methods that ATC use to put the brakes on the flow. This may include the use of ‘expect departure clearance times’ – IFR flights bound for Vegas will need to depart within five minutes of them. And of course, don’t rule out the chance of dreaded ground holds.

To keep track of these delays, the FAA NASS website is the best place to start.

Terminal area in Vegas – KHND/Henderson where the event is happening is south of the city.

Headed to Henderson?

Here’s what the FAA have to say about it…

From 0900:LT on Oct 9 until 22:00LT on Oct 10 all landings of aircraft not based here will need a PPR. Contact HND Ops on (702) 261 – 4858 to reserve yours (and get in early as they can fill up). Make sure you include your PPR number in the remarks section of your flight plan.

You’ll need to fly one of three RNAV arrivals. From the NW, the GAMES ONE. From the NE, the BOEGY ONE. And anything from the south, the NTNDO ONE.

Once you’ve landed, they want you off quickly. Take the first available exit. Stay on tower until they tell you to change ground.

Then there’s parking. You probably would like to stop your airplane at some stage after landing? Good plan, but you’ll need a reservation for that. Get in touch with the HND FBO on (702) 261 – 4800 or you can do it online here. But don’t show up unannounced – there’s a $1,000 fine, and the house always wins.

You need to reserve your parking spot at Henderson – don’t arrive without one as fines apply!

What about departures?

Don’t try and jump the queue. They don’t want you to ask for taxi until you have an IFR clearance and are clear to enter a taxiway from the ramp.

Showing off a ride at the show?

If you’re exhibiting, there’s a lengthy set of rules you’ll need to follow. You can access those here.

There are also special procedures for demonstration flights. Issues with airspace make these tricky for ATC who may not be familiar with the profiles of demo flights. Be sure to let Las Vegas TRACON know if you need anything special in advance, and they’ll do their best to help. You can contact them on (752) 600 7011.

Planning to go IFR? You’ll need TRACON’s approval on the same number. Your call sign will be ‘DEMO’ followed by the last three characters of the aircraft reg.

There will only be two routes available:

• FL230 and below: KHND.OYODA2.BOJAC..BYSEN.NTNDO1.KHND
• FL240 and above: KHND.SCAMR2.IWANS..BOEGY.BOEGY1.KHND

What about if you want to go VFR?

Yep, that’s okay too. You’ll need to use the practice area to the northwest of KVGT. Listen out on 122.75, and let others know where you are and what you’re doing. Click here for the Las Vegas VFR chart.

Keep an eye on NOTAMs

Other procedures may be published before the event.

If we’ve missed something, we’d love to hear from you. Get in touch with the OPSGROUP team on team@ops.group.

Since January this year, any passenger boarding an international flight bound for the US must have a Covid test within 3 days of their departure.

Great when it’s negative. Not so much if its positive – what happens then?  How do you carry them back to the US? And what about their close contacts? Are they good to go?

Let’s take a closer look…

The US law says you cannot knowingly carry someone with known or suspected Covid-19 to or within the US on regular passenger flights. You can’t even board them.

Instead, as a general rule they won’t be able to travel until they meet CDC quarantine or isolation guidelines (typically staying put for ten days and more testing), in addition to whatever local laws apply. A great reason to have travel insurance.

But what if they have to travel?

There are important reasons why a Covid-positive passenger might have to fly. The most common one is that they are being medically evacuated or transferred to better medical facilities. It may also be part of the passenger’s insurance policy.

Either way, it falls upon charter or medevac operators to make it happen because the rules say that this is the only way. The airlines just can’t be used.

Forget ‘the brush.’

If you’re chartered to carry Covid positive passengers – or those suspected of having it – you need to be familiar with the CDC’s procedure for transport by air. Spoiler alert: you need permission, so whatever you do don’t show up unannounced.

You can read that procedure here in all its glory. But here’s a quick rundown of how it works.

It starts with the phone.

If you’re operating an international flight, the first step is to contact the relevant US Embassy. There may be local laws or restrictions that prevent a Covid positive patient from being allowed out of quarantine early.

Then, over in the US, there are three important agencies that you’ll need approval from:

• The FAA – yep, make sure they’re cool with it.
• Customs and Border Protection – they will work with you to decide on the best port-of-entry.
• The CDC – This involves contacting the relevant quarantine station for where you’re headed – and you’ll need to give them at least 24 hours’ notice before you take-off. There’s a bunch of info they’ll need – click here for that list.

You’ll also need to think about the logistics of your flight including transport, permission from other CAAs and airport authorities – including where you may need to divert to.

Pre-travel.

Prior to the big day it goes without saying that your unwell passenger(s) should stay in isolation. They’ll need a medical exam beforehand to make sure they are well enough for the level of care you can provide them in the air.

You’ll also need to work with airport authorities for a plan. If you have to enter a terminal, your passengers will need to be separated from the public.

Choose your ride.

When it comes to transporting unwell passengers, not all airplanes are created equally.

The CDC has guidelines for this too. They were developed back when MERS was thing. Remember MERS? It was like Covid’s lesser known cousin that appeared a few years back but was way less memorable at the party.

In a nutshell they need to be large enough to be able to separate passengers and crew into different parts of the airplane. Ventilation is also important – ideally, cockpit air should have positive pressure relative to the main cabin and not be mixed.

Don’t forget to think about range. Every stop you make will become a logistical challenge to manage. If you can make it in one go, you should.

On-board.

First things first, keep that air flowin’. At all times. Even on the ground during long delays, you need to keep ventilating the airplane.

Passengers and crew must wear masks – don’t worry you can remove them to sip on your coffee. You can get away with basic ones, but the CDC recommends the fancier N95 masks or better.

Here’s the kicker – crew need to remain separated from passengers unless there is an emergency or to provide single-serve meals. You can put up placards or barriers but they need to be obvious and not stop anyone from reaching emergency exits or seeing cabin signs.

If you can, seat passengers at the rear of the aircraft and keep cabin crew at the front – at least six feet away. The reasons for six feet will become clear in a sec. Pax should have their own bathrooms.

After landing.

 The airplane will need to be thoroughly cleaned. As in squeaky clean. There are rules for what types of products need to be used – you can read about that here.

Post-flight cleaning needs to be squeaky clean.

As for crew, as long as you’ve followed the rules, you don’t need to be tested or quarantine. But make sure you self-monitor for symptoms for 14 days afterwards, just in case.

The ‘close contact’ conundrum.

This is where things start to get tricky…

Being a ‘close contact’ of a known Covid case for all intents and purposes means you have been exposed.

But what counts as ‘close’? Brace yourself, because the CDC have that base covered – it means anyone who has been within six feet of a confirmed case for a cumulative total of 15 minutes over 24 hours.  Cumulative being important here – so for example, three 5 minute exposures counts as ‘close’. It doesn’t need to be all in one hit.

So, what happens when a known close contact still tests negative?

 There’s effectively three scenarios here:

• The close contact is fully vaccinated and has no symptoms: Okay, they can still travel.
• The close contact is fully vaccinated but has symptoms:  No bueno, it’s off to quarantine.
• The close contact hasn’t been vaccinated:  No bueno, it’s off to quarantine.

Cool, so can Covid positive passengers be transported with their close contacts?

No. But you can transport multiple positive pax together, you just can’t mix positive ones with those who have tested negative.

Still have questions? We don’t blame you. Here are some handy places to start.

The CDC website, you can visit it here.

The US FAA, their Covid specific stuff is found here.

If you’re trying to reach Customs and Border Protection, you can reach em’ here.

The skies over New York have been quieter over the past year or so, and it’s not hard to guess why. With lower traffic levels, there have been a number of operational changes at nearby KTEB/Teterboro. Here’s a rundown of what you might have missed recently…

Noise is a bigger issue than ever

It may seem ironic, but Covid hasn’t helped. With less airplanes in the skies, nearby residents have become more aware of Teterboro’s noise, and complaints have been on the rise.

If you’re headed to KTEB, be aware that there are extensive noise abatement procedures. There’s a handy summary of these available online, but here are some of the biggest gotchas to get you started.

If your ride is a jet and you’re new to KTEB, you’ll need permission first. There’s a form to fill out for that.

The most noise sensitive time is between 22:00 and 06:00LT, and it’s when you’re the most likely to get yourself into trouble. There’s a ‘voluntarily restraint’ in place after 23:00  – in other words if your flight isn’t essential, it should wait.

Sprinkled through the surrounding suburbs are noise monitoring devices, and there are strict decibel limits. The most restrictive is Runway 24 at night (only 80dB). Bust em’, and you can be served a violation – too many of those and you can say sayonara to operating there. And they take two years to expire.

Remote noise monitoring sites around Teterboro – be careful, strict decibel limits apply!

The least noise sensitive area is to the south of the airport. So if departing on the back of the clock and the weather is playing ball, try to use Runway 19 for departures and Runway 01 for arrivals.

Speaking of noise, the new RNAV X RWY 19

Back in July, an offset RNAV noise sensitive approach was introduced for Runway 19. It’s a quieter alternative to the straight-in ILS. It’s recommended for night ops at KTEB on request (and you may hear it mentioned on the ATIS). But there’s some important stuff you should know before you go ahead and shoot it.

If conditions are less than ‘tropical’, keep in mind the approach is significantly offset (13 degrees) and minimas are high. The visual descent point is almost three miles from the threshold. There’s also a big unfriendly radio antenna at the business end of the approach. At the VDP on the correct 3 degree path, you’ll be uncomfortably close to it – check out this article for just how close.

What’s the moral of the story? In marginal conditions, the approach can quickly become challenging – consider the ILS if in doubt.

Escape Routes

Tired of waiting at the hold? We don’t blame you!

There are new departure routes to help business jet operators get airborne out of KTEB when the weather is bad, or New York’s majors airports are especially busy. New York TRACON is responsible for co-ordinating those with the tower.

A head’s up though – they are designed with the performance of business jets in mind and may require steeper climb profiles than you’re used to.

You need to fly them from start to finish too. Don’t accept the clearance unless you are sure you can meet the requirements, and asking for track shortening after wheels up is a no-no.

Works

Construction and runway maintenance are ongoing. Single runway closures are common and can happen during the day. The good news is that full closures are pretty rare.

Something to look out for – if Runway 06/24 is closed in southerly conditions, extended delays are common at KTEB due to the flow at nearby KEWR/Newark, just 10nm to the South. You might need to carry some extra gas.

The Teterboro Users Group publish weekly Maintenance Bulletins for Runway and Taxiway closures which you can access here. Of course, if you prefer your info capitalised and abbreviated, you’ll find the information in  Notams too.

Covid

We’re all well over it. But there are some procedures to follow, especially if operating an international flight into KTEB.

US Customs and Border Protection are up and running at the airport, but will only accept international arrivals between 07:15 and 23:15 local. Don’t show up after hours. Standard CDC rules apply here including the pre-travel testing requirement for all pax.

For a full break down of these and other health protocols, you can view a full rundown here.

CBP can only process international flights between 07:15 and 23:15 local each day.

Have we missed something?

We’d love to hear from you! You can reach us at blog.team@ops.group.

Also check out our recent Airport Lowdown for KTEB/Teterboro – it’s the biggest threats all in one place, built by pilots who have been there.

Click to download PDF.

Update Oct 2025

OPSGROUP members can access an updated version of this guide, effective Oct 2025, on the members Dashboard here.

Original Article from Sep 2021

If you’re planning to operate a business jet into Singapore, there’s a good chance you won’t be bound for WSSS/Changi Airport at all. Instead you may be headed for the lesser known WSSL/Seletar – Singapore’s secondary commercial airport, and it can be a lot more challenging.

Here’s a basic rundown of just what to expect to keep you ahead of the game next time you are flying into Seletar.

The Basics

Seletar is a stone’s throw (8nm) northeast of WSSS/Changi. It has a single 6020ft/1840m long runway and serves predominantly turbo prop and corporate jet traffic. It has fuel and good facilities for business ops.

Just getting in there at all can be a pain – the airport is surrounded with prohibited and restricted airspace, noise abatement areas, training areas, military airports; as well as a bunch of buildings, cranes, boats, and other obstacles to the north of the airport on the Malaysian side – just across the Strait of Johor.

And since Malaysia effectively killed the plans for ILS at Seletar back at the start of 2019, there are no available instrument approaches at all, requiring visual approaches to be flown onto both runways.

The Airspace Picture

Operations at Seletar are difficult because of the complicated airspace that surrounds it, and it is the reason why there are no instrument approaches. There just isn’t enough room.

Seletar is literally boxed in by a variety of restricted airspace. To the west lies the Sembawang airbase, and to the east the Payar Lebar airbase. Both are strictly military.

Then just a smidge to the north is the boundary with Malaysian airspace, the WMFC/Kuala Lumpur FIR. South of the airport is highly noise sensitive, with three noise abatement areas where hefty fines await.

Throw these things together and you have the Seletar ‘Fish Bowl’ – a small bubble of airspace where there is precious little room to manoeuvre. Here’s a picture of what this all looks like.

The Seletar ‘Fish Bowl’

Arrival Procedures

To keep things simple, the end game is to join the circuit and fly a visual approach, without busting any airspace. To help you with this there are a number of visual arrivals that require you to be in VMC conditions. If you can’t get visual, you’ll need to hold or divert to nearby Changi.

There are essentially two arrival procedures – North and South. And all arriving aircraft will join them through one of three feeder points – Jaybee NDB (JB), Sinjon VOR (SJ) or Kong Kong NDB (KK). From there you will either join downwind, straight in or even overhead if you need the extra track miles.

You can view the current plates for those procedures in the Singapore AIP online. But to make it easy, here’s a couple of pictures.

Arrivals onto Runway 03

Arrivals onto Runway 21 – make sure you have the ‘steel towers and silo’ in sight for an earlier approach clearance.

Things to look out for

Day and night closures: The airport is closed every night between 22-07 local time except for medevac and SAR. And then during the daytime, there are several infuriating closures to accommodate training flights. So essentially, GA/BA flights can only operate to Seletar at these times : 0700-0930, 1030-1200, 1300-1500, 1600-1700, 1800-2200 local time.

The circuit is tight. It is always on the western side of the airport and you cannot fly your circuit wider than 1.5nm due to Sembawang’s airspace. Which means the turn onto final is also going to be tight.

The profile is steeper than normal. 3.2 degrees on Runway 03, and 3.5 degrees on Runway 21. Which means you will need higher rates of descent than a standard visual circuit ‘outta the book’.

You need to be visual. If you’re not VMC, you can’t land at Seletar. Thunderstorms are common in Singapore with heavy rain, and they tend to be slow moving. The worst times are afternoons and evenings.

‘Steel Structures and Silos’  – You’ll hear it on the ATIS, and you need to report you have them in sight if arriving on Runway 21. They’re on the Malaysian coastline north of Seletar. Spot them early and you’ll get an earlier approach clearance from ATC which will make your job easier.

Mistaken Identity: Both nearby Sembawang and Paya Lebar airports have similar runway orientations to Seletar and it is easy to line up with the wrong one. Tune up Seletar’s NDB (220) – the needle doesn’t lie!

Missed Approaches. Expect to re-enter the circuit for both runways – which means a prompt turn downwind and not above 1500ft.

Ops on the Ground

You’ll be pleased to know, pretty straight forward. Parking can become limited, and so it always pays to book a spot with your handling agent well in advance.

Departures

Both runways have noise abatement. Just the standard stuff here – NADP 1 or 2. Your call.

There are published visual departure procedures for both runways. Essentially they involve a climb straight ahead to 1000ft, followed by a turn onto a radar heading.

For departures downwind, the challenge is to stay within the ‘Fish Bowl.’ Which means keeping your turn tight, and your speed down. Ironically the noise abatement procedures help here.

Your Layover

Assuming Covid isn’t still ruining the party, Singapore is famous for food. Three words: Chilli Mud Crab. Jumbo Seafood Restaurant in Clarke Quay is the place to go. And if you’re beer inclined, Tiger is the perfect accompanying drop. For the time being, you may need to rely on Uber Eats. Don’t worry though, Jumbo also delivers.

Handling

 There’s a few good options to choose from. Here are some contacts:

• Wings Over Asia: Ph +65 9455 5615 Email: fltops@wingsoverasia.com
• Jet Aviation:  Ph +65 6335 7420 Email: sinfbo@jetaviation.com
• Universal Aviation: +65 6484 4848 Email: singapore@universalaviation.aero

Facilities and handling at Seletar are generally excellent.

Other options?

Technically, bizav operators are still allowed to go to WSSS/Changi, but will normally only be allowed quick turnarounds subject to runway/bay availability, and then you’ll have to go elsewhere for parking.

Another option is WMKJ/Johor Bahru, on the Malaysian side, around 25nm north of Singapore. It’s open from 06-00 local time, with extensions possible with prior notice. It has a separate FBO with its own VIP lounge and hangars with maintenance support, and has no slots or parking restrictions for bizav ops. Check out the brochure!

The only downside in WMKJ is that it can sometimes take a bit of time for immigration when you cross the road border heading south into Singapore – sometimes 2-3 hours during busy travel periods.

Opsgroup members can read reports on all these airports in Airport Spy.

Permits and stuff

If you’re operating as a private flight to either Changi or Seletar, things don’t get too complicated, as permits are not required for private flights. Just make sure you have parking arranged, and file your inbound ATC flight plan 12 hours in advance, being sure to copy in the Singapore ATC AFTN address WSJCZQZX.

If you’re doing a charter flight on the other hand, you’re going to need a landing permit, which means you’re going to have to jump through a few hoops.

For this, you’ll need to get an Operations Permit from Singapore CAA, which is basically a blanket approval to conduct revenue flights to Singapore, valid for up to one year. You’ll then need to get an Air Transport Permit, which is required for every individual charter schedule into Singapore (Changi or Seletar). Save yourself some hassle and get a local handler to help arrange these for you.

Airport Lowdowns

Have you heard of them? We make a bunch, especially if you ask for one! They’re what you need to know from crew who have been there. And they’re on one small, simple piece of paper. You can read more about them here.

We’ve got you covered. Check out Seletar’s here.

Click to download PDF.

A military coup took place in Guinea’s capital, Conakry, on Sep 5. Following hours of heavy gunfire near the presidential palace, the head of the country’s special forces announced that his soldiers had detained the president and seized power.

Initially, the coup leaders announced that the country’s land and air borders were closed, including the country’s international airport – GUCY/Conakry, where all flights were temporarily suspended.

However, on Sep 6, a military spokesman announced that land and air borders have now reopened. Local handling agent Astra Aviation have advised that the airport is open and operating normally again, with all services available, but they advise against overnight stops for the time being.

GUCY/Conakry airport has issued the following Notam:

A0095/21 - AD HOURS OF SERVICE ARE NOW 0400-2100 UTC. 
DAILY: 0400 - 2100 UTC, 07 SEP 04:00 2021 UNTIL 06 OCT 21:00 2021 ESTIMATED. 
CREATED: 07 SEP 14:40

A night curfew is now in place and there have been no signs of unrest in Conakry in response to the military takeover.

Where is Guinea?

Guinea is a country on the northwest coast of Africa, bordering Guinea-Bissau to the North, and Sierra Leone to the South.

While it has a long history of civil unrest, and crime remains a risk for visiting foreigners, Guinea is generally considered a safer option when compared to its neighbours. Which is why GUCY/Conakry is often used by civil aviation as a reasonable option for tech stops in West Africa.

What about overflights?

Guinea isn’t responsible for managing the overflights in the airspace above it. That job falls to the GLRB/Roberts FIR which collectively manages the upper level airspace of Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia together. It has yet to issue any warnings or restrictions for its airspace, but data from Flightradar shows that overflights through the airspace have continued today.

The GLRB/Roberts FIR manages overflights over three West African countries, including Guinea.

Where to from here?

The situation is evolving, and the ongoing impact to operations there is unpredictable at the moment. We will continue to update this article as more details become available.

Aviation has always been a reactive industry – because it needs to be.

Over time, forces beyond our control have continued to influence the way the industry moves forward and the way we operate.

For the past eighteen months, our reactive energies have been focussed primarily on one thing – a global pandemic. But it is important that we continue to react to other changes too – particularly when it comes to security, and the types of threats that we face are evolving.

As the industry begins to recover from Covid and press on into the decade, here are some of the biggest security threats that it will face.

Operating Near Conflict Zones

While the lines between aviation and politics are often blurry, they undeniably intersect. The point is that regardless of which side we choose to take, we continue to operate aircraft over or in close proximity to active conflict zones. Which means risk.

The past eighteen months have shown that conflicts can erupt with very little warning in busy flight corridors and with significant dangers to the aircraft flying above them.

This was the case last year in Azerbaijan, where almost all west/east bound airways were closed by the conflict below. Only months ago, Israel’s Tel Aviv FIR was heavily affected by widespread rocket attacks while just this week, Afghanistan’s Kabul FIR has been left with no ATC services following an overwhelming Taliban offensive.

More than 3000 rockets affected Israeli airspace over an eight day period in May 2021. Aircraft were immediately under threat from not only them, but widespread use of high-tech air defence systems.

Things can change quickly and the problem isn’t going away in a hurry.

But perhaps more concerning is that the aviation system relies on the sharing of information to keep us safe up there (and ICAO Annex 17 demands it). But practically speaking, concerns remain over inadequate government intelligence sharing, especially in states involved with conflicts.

Your flight is tomorrow and you’re not familiar with the politics of Western Sahara. Here’s what the notams have to say. Is it safe to overfly?

Until things change, reliable risk assessments will remain a challenge firmly on the shoulder of operators – and these will rely on timely, unbiased and accurate information. As we have often seen, that can be very hard to get.

Terrorism

Unfortunately, aviation will continue to be a target for terrorism.

While security at airports remains tight, the challenges of breaching it have led terrorist groups to develop new ways of targeting aviation interests. While large-scale attacks the likes of 9/11 seem more far-fetched with today’s protocols, there is a renewed interest by terrorist groups in attacking so-called ‘soft targets’ – primarily aircraft in flight or airports with poor security infrastructure.

To make matters worse, non-state actors and large terrorist organisations (such as ISIS and Al Shabaab) are encouraging smaller groups or even just lone-wolf individuals to attack by proxy, which makes the threat difficult to prevent. These attacks don’t need obvious leadership, and can be accomplished by low-tech means. Weapons such as rockets, mortars and man portable air defence systems (MANPADS) are of particular concern.

Non-state actors with access to MANPADs are spread throughout the world. Courtesy: US Dept of State.

Recent events at ORBI/Baghdad Airport serve as a good example, where multiple rockets were found stashed on nearby rooftops overlooking the airport.

Civil Unrest

In the past eighteen months, we’ve seen countries around the world suddenly erupt into periods of civil unrest. While beyond the realm of airspace warnings and Notams, the effects on crew safety on the ground can be dramatic.

While strikes and peaceful demonstrations can cause little more than inconvenience on the airport commute, it is when things get violent that the danger emerges.

Two examples spring to mind this year where the security situation on the ground changed rapidly and without warning.

The first is Myanmar where in February a military coup saw nationwide protests. Clashes with military police eventually turned violent with mass civilian casualties in the capital, Yangon. Disruptions continue there to this day.

The second is South Africa last month where a political and legal dispute led to widespread rioting and looting and became the worst violence that South Africa had experienced in many years.

Violent clashes between protestors and military resulted in mass casualties in Myanmar earlier this year.

Given the abundance of uncertainty that seems to characterise the modern world, it seems naive to believe that civil unrest is going anywhere in a hurry. Recent events have shown that even away from airports, aviation professionals continue to be at risk.

Cyber Threats

While the aviation industry has developed a strong track record of security practices from physical threats, it has struggled to keep pace with digital ones.

Studies have revealed some alarming numbers. EASA for instance have reported an average of one thousand reported cyber on attacks on airports every single month, while systems at airports in Israel fend off up to three million attempted breaches per day.

Unlike other industries, aviation is particularly vulnerable to cyber-attacks because the consequences can be so catastrophic. Successful attacks could literally cost lives.

Only two things are needed to open the doors to a cyber attack: a vulnerability and a pathway. We’re heavily reliant on countless connected systems that have to operate in real-time and with super-high reliability. Many of them are safety-critical, and they have to be protected.

Have a ponder for a moment about just how far that rabbit hole can go. Here’s a few suggestions just to get you started: Primary radar, secondary radar, EFBs, ADS-B, GNSS, Datalink, ACARs, even Fly-By-Wire. Heavy, heavy hitters in the safety game. This is before we even go down the road of the pilotless aircraft.

Safety critical systems such as CPDLC could potentially be targeted by cyber criminals.

As technology continues to improve our efficiency and make our jobs easier, it is also opening gateways for those with malicious intent. Aircraft are becoming smarter and more connected, but arguably also more vulnerable to attack.

The challenge in years to come will be how to protect these critical systems, or at least limit the impact when they are attacked.

Human Trafficking

The unlawful act of transporting people around the world in order to benefit from their labour or exploit them in other ways continues to be a global phenomenon. Particularly when they are suffering from economic hardship.

Recent studies have shown that as many as 700,000 people become the subjects of human trafficking every year, with reports from over 127 countries worldwide. It is aviation that is often the vehicle for this malicious trade. These unfortunate people are often travelling with forged or stolen documents, and may be under duress from the people they are travelling with.

It’s an ongoing problem. ICAO itself is directly involved in efforts to address it through better training and an understanding of where in the world the worst hotspots are. However it is likely to remain a threat to aviation security for many years to come.

Threats to aviation security aren’t new, but our reaction to them needs to be.

Moving forward our response to security in the industry must continue to evolve to meet the threat, regardless of what other industry pressures we find ourselves under. Undeniably, our safety and that of our passengers will depend on it.

Plans are underway to establish a new flight information region in a busy air corridor over the Middle East.

Since 2018, Qatar has been campaigning to control its own airspace by establishing the Doha FIR  – a process that would involve cutting the existing OBBB/Bahrain FIR in half.

For the first time, an improving political environment has led ICAO to give Qatar the go-ahead, as long as it can work directly with Bahrain to sort out all of the technical side of things. When established, over thirty percent of traffic in and out of the UAE will pass through the new airspace and so it is worth taking a closer look.

A little background.

With the exception of terminal airspace at OTHH/Doha, Qatar’s air traffic is controlled by Bahrain in a long standing agreement. Qatar first proposed to assume control over its own airspace three years back – a suggestion that was opposed by several countries including the UAE, Saudi Arabia and Bahrain.

Why?

Primarily because it came at a politically sensitive time.

Just the year before a diplomatic crisis led to Saudi Arabia, the UAE, Bahrain and Egypt (among others) cutting ties with Qatar. From an aviation perspective, a blockade was formed which prevented Qatari registered aircraft from using their airspace and vice versa. From an operational perspective there was likely little regional appetite to release a large chunk of Middle Eastern airspace into a political road block.

Thus criticisms were quickly tabled. The primary feedback was this:

• Qatar hadn’t provided operational justification for the change.
• An additional ANSP in this busy piece of airspace would make co-ordination more complicated.
• Safety may be compromised, while cost would go up for operators.
• Bahraini air traffic control had done a great job of safe and efficient flow of traffic for decades, why change?
• Capacity would tank.

Qatar on the other hand argued that the proposal would improve safety while providing some economic award for the industry too.

Then things changed.

Earlier this year while the world continued to revel in the ‘delights’ of a certain pandemic, the political situation for aviation in the Middle East changed for the better. Following a successful GCC summit, the blockade was lifted. Meaning all parties could once again use each other’s airspace. Tensions subsided and it was good news for fuel burns and flight times.

A successful GCC Summit this year saw the Qatar Blockade lifted.

Enter the Chicago Convention.

The what? Spoiler alert: It has nothing to do with the Cubs. It’s basically the landmark agreement among all ICAO member states that establishes the core principles for international ops. It’s a big deal. Buried within its many hallowed pages is this: each state has ‘complete and exclusive sovereignty over the airspace above its territory’. And ICAO have agreed that in this case, the principle applies.

So what is the proposed airspace going to look like?

 Pictures are always better than words. So here are some pictures:

Why do ICAO only agree ‘provisionally’?

Because quite a bit of work needs to happen behind the scenes to make the proposal a reality.

Essentially Qatar has to do two things:

1. Prove that safe and efficient systems and infrastructure are in place in their airspace to be.
2. They need to work directly with Bahrain to report back on all of the technical arrangements that will make the proposal real. It is not the easiest task for either side given diplomatic histories but in promising signs for the region, work is under way.

What happens now?

Qatar and Bahrain are due to report back to ICAO later this year, likely November or December. How long after that meeting the changes may be implemented is still up in the air (bad pun not intended).

But keep an eye out for updates on the change which appears to now be well on its way to altering the skies over the Middle East.

In 2016, an RJ85 operating a charter flight ran out of fuel in a holding pattern while waiting for another aircraft to land. The crew knew they were critically low on fuel but seemed reluctant or unwilling to tell ATC they were in trouble and get back on the ground.

This tragic accident highlights a dangerous mindset that continues to expose pilots to risk the world over: reluctance to declare an emergency.

Accident reports reveal that the RJ85 crew were certainly not an isolated case either. So, what’s going wrong up there? Why are we asking for help far too late or not at all?

The real world may offer up some answers.

The accident of this RJ85 teaches us some important lessons.

For starters, what is an emergency?

Have a go at defining one in your own words. As I discovered, it’s not actually as black and white as it seems.

The US FAA tells us they come in two flavours:

Distress. These are things that need you to act on immediately. Engine failures, a fire on-board, structural failures. In other words, you have to do something about it now. Crew are good at declaring emergencies in these cases because it is an easy decision.

Urgency. The smoking gun here. These are emergencies that often develop through a set of deteriorating circumstances which become increasingly critical as time and options run out. You may not have an emergency to begin with, but through failure to act earlier it has developed into one.

It seems that in these cases crew are waiting until they have few or no options left before declaring an emergency, far too late.

So why not just declare earlier?

There are a few factors at play here, and the first is this – fear of the fall out. Or in other words, ‘what will happen once we’re back on the ground?’

It’s not hard to imagine mountains of paperwork awaiting your arrival, but this often isn’t the case. In most cases it is very limited and sometimes non-existent. Generally, aviation authorities just want to know if you have broken the law in dealing with the emergency, which the regs say you’re allowed to do.

This is often not what awaits you on the ground.

Of course, operators will have their own reporting practices, but crew should never face disciplinary action for declaring an emergency – it is a safe response to an unsafe condition.

Enter Just Culture – if you haven’t heard of it, it’s worth googling and it’s part of a revolution in making the industry safer by enabling crew to act and report without fear of the repercussions.

It’s no secret that pilots tend to be mission orientated. In other words, we want to complete our flight as planned. We hang our professional hats on being able to navigate operational challenges on a daily basis and find ways to make it all work with our safety margins intact at the other end. You know the ones – weather, delays, MELs. They all make for long days and grey hairs, but we make it work.

The problem is that in this belief and dedication to ‘make it work’ that we can begin to fixate on completing the task, rather than taking notice of early warning signs that those safety margins are being steadily eroded while we still have options.

This is when declaring an emergency early really makes a difference. Here’s why…

‘The Emergency Mindset.’

By telling ATC you have an emergency you are sending yourself a powerful psychological message. You’re essentially flicking a switch in your brain from ‘complete the mission’ to the realisation and acceptance that there is a threat to your survival. Your training is essentially triggered.

Your new mission now becomes to do what you need to do to get back on the ground safely and as quickly as possible. You essentially put yourself onto a new script. This is the emergency mindset, and it is a powerful call-to-action.

But it’s not just our headspace that matters here. It’s also important to weigh up what you gain from ATC by declaring an emergency, against the perceived pitfalls of doing so.

By declaring an emergency to ATC, you are activating a huge resource and will have their undivided attention. While they’ll continue to control other aircraft around you, their priority will be your safety. They may even give you your own discrete frequency or controller. It is then up to the pilot-in-command to advise what help they need and their intentions. It is basically your call, and they’ll facilitate it – even if it means breaking the rules.

They’re also a wealth of knowledge. At a time where you’re likely busy managing the aircraft they can tell you what you need to know and quickly. They can help you find suitable airports for landing and begin co-ordinating with those control facilities.

While they’re giving you priority handling, they’ll also be facilitating a chain of events behind the scenes including organising rescue services both on and off the airport (all without you even having to ask).

Declaring an emergency activates a massive resource that wants to help you.

According to FAR 91.3 pilots can deviate from the rules to the extent required by the emergency. Which means you can kiss goodbye to speed restrictions, clearance limits and other workload increasing airspace procedures.

There’s a lot you can do once you’ve declared one. On a side note, you don’t have to have physically declared an emergency for this to apply, but it certainly helps. Especially if you need an immediate change of course, speed or level.

When to declare?

The intent of declaring an emergency is to mobilise all the resources available to you while you still have options. Which means the earlier you do it, the better. Waiting until you have none left before you advise ATC is already too late.

In the simplest of sense, if you feel apprehensive for you or your passengers’ safety for any reason, you are likely already experiencing some type of emergency. The safest course of action is always to make the decision, and inform ATC sooner rather than later.

Summer has hit the Northern Hemisphere with a vengeance.

In the US, heat alerts have been issued from the Pacific Northwest to the Louisiana Gulf Coast with temps in some areas hitting the triple digits.

Over in Europe, southern and eastern regions are currently sweltering while in the Middle East several countries are currently the hottest places on earth. Kuwait hit 50 degrees Celsius the other day – that’s 122 if you prefer your temps in Fahrenheit.

Chances are if you’re operating in the Northern Hemisphere right now you are running into hot weather ops.

While you may be discovering that those board shorts you bought on layover pre-Covid are now a frightening three sizes too small, the hot weather presents some other unique operational challenges that are worth reviewing.

Flight Planning.

Make sure you check the books. If it’s getting really hot out there, keep an eye on your manuals. Most commercial aircraft have an operating envelope for ambient temperature. When the heat becomes extreme it can actually ground you, as happened to a number of CRJs in Arizona back in 2017.

Watch those MELs – You may be allowed to dispatch but have a think about whether it is appropriate to. Passenger comfort can become a problem here. Look out for anything that affects cabin cooling – bleed faults are a classic. A 30-minute taxi on a hot day running on a single bleed may see you unable to keep the cabin cool.

It’s nudging 110 out there and there’s no ground equipment. The book says go, would you?

If you have an extended turn-around without ground equipment you may need to factor in a little extra fuel for APU burn to keep the AC flowing.

Pre-flight.

First things first, get that cabin cool. High cabin temperatures are not only uncomfortable but can lead to medicals. The challenge on the ground is to control cabin temps – it is easier to keep them down than bring them down.

Consider using ground equipment if it’s available and keeping the aircraft’s window shades and door(s) closed. Random fact for the day: adult humans produce about as much heat energy per hour as a 100w light bulb – you may need to delay boarding until things cool off.

It’s not just ground air either. Some manufacturers think ground power helps too, as it takes some load off the APU.

Think about using ground equipment for cooling.

Also, don’t forget to look after the bleed system – they have a tendency to overheat. In some aircraft types it can help to partially extend the slats and flaps to improve cooling while on the ground.

Start Up.

Whether you use ITT, TIT, EGT or some other type of -T you will need to keep your eyes glued on limits, both during start and take-off.

Starting can be particularly problematic if your engines are already warm. Each aircraft type will have a specific procedure to follow to avoid hot-starts but more often than not they will include a dry crank cycle and a manual start.

By manual, we mean no fanciness like FADEC. Which means it’s on you to get rid of the fuel (quickly) before you roast one. Over-temps can happen very quickly. Pay close attention to the rate at which temps are rising. You don’t have to hit the limit to cut the fuel.

On that note – use every advantage you can. If there’s wind you want as much down the core as possible. You may need to tow into a better position for start – avoid tailwinds!

Starting a hot engine in high temps needs special care – keep an eye on those limits!

The Taxi Out.

The issue here is brake temps. Large aircraft usually use carbon brakes. They’re designed to absorb energy by converting it to heat. Aircraft have brake temp limits for departure – on a sidenote, any guesses why? It’s due to the flash point of hydraulic fluid – they don’t want you to have superhot brakes in a wheel well near potential leaks.

The point is you have to keep your brakes cool and hot weather makes that difficult. It helps if you’re lucky enough to have brake fans and some airports are equipped with portable ones if you ask engineering nicely.

Otherwise, a little planning ahead helps here. If you expect a long taxi, give yourself a ‘build up’ margin so that you don’t hit your limit the second you get to the holding point, and use them as sparingly as you can.

It’s also worth considering that a longer single application of brakes is better than a bunch of them – let that speed build up before you brake again.

Departure and (lack of) performance.

Chances are you already know that as temperature rises, air becomes less dense. Our engines and wings have to work harder to get the job done and the penalty is performance.

If we really want to know how our aircraft will perform on a given day, we need to think about density altitude – pressure altitude corrected for how hot it is out. And correct we must, because for every degree outside above ISA, an airplane will perform like it is 120 feet higher. In extreme heat this can push up into the thousands.

So, when it gets super warm out there you can expect longer take-off distances and decreased climb rates. You might find yourself unable to lift weights off runways that you usually can either because there isn’t enough of the hard stuff in front of you or because of climb gradients.

Even if you can lift it all, don’t get caught out by restrictions on your SID down the track (at or aboves). Make sure you check them ahead of time in your FMS with a healthy buffer to avoid getting some egg on your face. Consider asking for a waiver or a different SID.

Check those climb requirements – Salt Lake for instance recently recorded density altitudes close to 8000′.

Dodge that weather

High temps produce convection – or in other words, it makes air rise. In humid climates you’re likely to run into build-ups and thunderstorms, especially in the late afternoon and evening. Visibility can also be severely limited by haze and poor air quality.

The Approach.

There are a few things to think about. The first is the approach you’re about to fly. Make sure there are no temperature limitations – RNAV approaches publish them for the use of LNAV/VNAV minima while in other cases, such as RNP (AR), the whole procedure may not be usable.

Beware the fine print!

Expect mechanical turbulence near the ground, especially in dry climates. It can do a great job of destabilising an approach right when you have it on rails.

And don’t forget the missed approach either, especially if they require a steep climb gradient. Performance may once again become a problem.

Landing.

Runways surfaces get hot – expect some thermal lift in the flare.

Once again, look after those brakes! Especially if you’re headed out again. Consider using reverse or exiting the runway further down the track. Any extra heat energy you put into them can turn into extended delays for cooling.

Expect low level turbulence and thermals.

Parking Up.

Get that APU fired up pronto, close the shades and keep things cool.

Carbon brakes cool a lot faster with the park brake released. Once you’re on chocks, think about releasing – just don’t forget the chocked bit.

There’s more hot weather to come.

It’s not surprising to hear that the earth is warming up. 2020 saw the second hottest global temperature on record, and the figures show that that the rate of warming is accelerating.

From an operational perspective we are increasingly likely to encounter periods of ‘extreme heat’ on the line – when temperatures are six degrees Celsius or higher than average temperatures for an extended period of time.

In summer months more and more often we are going to have to deal with operating our aircraft at the high end of what they were designed for, so it’s important to remember how to keep things cool out there… literally.

The FAA has issued an emergency order for Afghanistan’s airspace which bans all US operators below FL260 throughout the OAKX/Kabul FIR.

KICZ Notam A0020/21 has the details but essentially there are only three exceptions:

• Flights in and out of OAKB/Kabul are allowed to continue.
• If a flight has a special approval from either the FAA or the state.
• If you have an emergency and have to land.

What’s the risk?

Due to increased extremist activity on the ground, civil aircraft are increasingly exposed to a number of threats. Aircraft at low levels and those taking-off and landing are especially vulnerable.

The first is indirect fire caused by militant groups targeting airports with mortars and rockets. OAKB/Kabul was attacked in December last year by ballistic weapons which damaged a parked aircraft.

The second is direct fire from a variety of sources. Militia are known to have access to multiple weapons that can be used to target low level aircraft. These include rocket propelled grenades and man-portable air defence systems (MANPADS) which are capable of reaching aircraft as high as FL250. Even small arms fire has been actively used to target aircraft.

In recent years there have been several reports of anti-aircraft fire incidents from both military and civilian traffic. Tragically in two cases, military aircraft were actually shot down.

So why now? What’s changed?

While the threat from militant activity in Afghanistan isn’t new, the FAA has been closely monitoring the situation there for changes in safety and security. And things are changing…

As US forces begin to withdraw, two groups are now engaged in an escalating conflict there – the Taliban and Afghanistan’s own military, which may lead to a civil war if no agreement can be met. Essentially the Taliban seek to regain power, while the existing government is defending itself.

For aviation this means an increase in exposure to known risks. The situation is volatile, and no one really knows where the conflict is headed. But with increasing extremist activity on the ground and a possible intention to make an international statement, the FAA appears to have decided that a simple caution is no longer enough.

What about above FL260?

US operators can continue to overfly the OAKX/Kabul FIR above FL260 but is recommended you stay on established airways. It’s also important you continue to monitor the situation on the ground which may change with little warning.

What are other countries saying?

Several long running airspace warnings remain in place, and it is likely we will see these changed in the near term as the situation in Afghanistan continues to evolve.

France follows similar rules and requires all operators to remain at or above FL260 throughout the Kabul FIR. Both German and UK operators are advised to consider the risks of operating below FL330 and FL250 respectively.

Stay safe up there.

As US troops withdraw the real question now is whether the Afghan Government (or another international force) can put the brakes on a resurgent Taliban.

Until that happens, the situation remains unpredictable. You can keep up to date with airspace risk changes as they happen over at SafeAirspace.net – our conflict zone & risk database.

Click here for a full global briefing.

Industry heavyweight Airbus is currently running an innovative new trial over the North Atlantic that has potential to change the way we fly in oceanic airspace – and ANSPs Eurocontrol, NAT, DNSA and Navcanada are all on board. It’s called wake harnessing, and it was invented by geese. Okay maybe not ‘invented’ – but certainly provided by nature.

Geese, you say?

Geese have already left their mark on aviation history in ways that that we’d probably like to forget. So, it seems only fair that they do something positive for the industry too.

And now it seems that they are (unintentionally, but we’ll still take it). When a flock of Canada Geese infamously downed an airliner over New York back in 2009, they were flying in formation.

They were doing that because they were going somewhere and using each other to make things easier. Geese are known fly 1500 miles in a single day. That’s only possible because they use very little energy doing it.

So why do we care?

One word: biomimicry. Or in more simple terms – copying nature. When we want to figure out how to do something that we don’t know how to do, it’s often worth looking out the window. Nature, it seems, always finds a way.

Copying nature – look familiar?

Enter aviation. When it comes to fuel, it is facing a couple of big problems. The first is that ICAO have set some seriously lofty goals for improving fuel efficiency and carbon emissions. While the other issue is dosh. Jet fuel is expensive and modern aircraft use a lot of it. Reducing fuel burn is big business, especially in an environment where profit margins are tiny.

There are solutions coming. Sustainable aviation fuel and next-gen turbine engine design have been making headlines recently. But behind the scenes Airbus has been turning to nature to help solve the problem using existing technologies we have today and by changing the way we fly – and it’s all thanks to geese.

The Flying-V

Geese fly long distances in formation. Have you ever wondered why?

It’s because they are using something called wake energy retrieval. It’s a really fancy term for riding each other’s wave. It’s the result of countless years of evolution and it may have big implications for airplanes.

Here’s how it works: When a bird flaps its wings its tips creates vortices. In the same way that our man-made wings do. These vortices create a horizontal swirl of air – an outer upward component and an inner downward one.

The reason why birds fly in a V is because if they position themselves in such a way that their wings stay in upward-moving air from the bird in front, they can effectively fly in an updraft, constantly. Which means they flap less and travel further.

Each bird harnesses the energy lost from the wake of the bird in front. Courtesy: Airbus

What if airplanes did the same thing (but with less flapping)?

Airbus thinks that’s a good question. Since 2016 they have been copying geese by flying large jets in formation so that the trailing aircraft ‘rides the wake’ of the one in front.

It turns out that if you find just the right spot, not only is it smooth for the passengers, but also very fuel efficient. Get this – Airbus have shown fuel savings of five to ten percent simply due to the effects of this phenomenon, and potential to reduce overall climate impact by twenty-five percent.

Copying nature: Riding the smooth updraft from the aircraft in front. Courtesy: DLR Aerospace

They’re heavyweight numbers. That’s because by flying in the upward component of the wake from the aircraft in front, we are essentially getting free lift. Or in other words, ‘harnessing’ energy we’d otherwise lose – which is why the concept is also known as ‘wake harnessing’.

It’s almost as though the trailing aircraft is flying in a gentle descent while level. That means less thrust, less fuel and less emissions.

But here’s the kicker – you have to get close. Like real close. Airbus have found the optimum distance between aircraft is only 1.5nm. That’s a fraction of the spacing applied by ATC. But with existing technologies like TCAS and ADS-C it’s not unreasonable to think that this can be achieved safely.

Something we’re not used to in the sky…

Airbus have called the project Fello’fly.

And here’s how it works.

ETAs would be used by ATC at feeder waypoints to set aircraft up for their ‘wake energy retrieval pairing’- i.e. formation. The aircraft will still be separated both horizontally and vertically, but close enough for the pairing process to begin.

Responsibility for separation will then be handed to the two aircraft. Using newly developed FMS software, the trailing airplane will slowly close in on the leading one until it is positioned in the optimum spot for wake harnessing. There it will stay until the two aircraft part ways again. The lead aircraft will be responsible for talking to ATC while in formation.

But it’s not all smooth sailing.

 While the idea has some serious potential there are some fairly obvious hurdles that would need to be overcome:

Wasting energy. The idea only works if aircraft don’t waste energy flying at sub-optimal speeds to make it happen. In other words, loitering or playing catch up. Which means it will be difficult to achieve for aircraft departing the same airport.

Instead the answer may lie in new software. For instance, German researchers have developed ‘MultiFly’ – a system that identifies jets that can be paired together based on type, location and how long they will be on the same route.

Different aircraft. Unlike a flock of geese, all aircraft types are different. 1.5nm may be optimal for a pair of A350s, but more testing needs to be done to find the sweet spot for all possible combinations of jets. Both aircraft would also need to have the same optimal cruise speed – otherwise all the gains would be pointless.

Then there is the raft of regulatory changes that would be required to make sure this can all happen safely.

There are some challenges to flying in formation.

Full Speed Ahead

Despite the obvious challenges that wake harnessing presents, if they can be overcome the potential benefits are obvious. Airbus is pressing ahead with the project and hope to make it reality in oceanic airspace by the middle of the decade.

Considering the growth potential of the industry in a post-Covid world, formation flight may be the next big step in cleaner and more efficient flying.

Who’d have ever thought we get there with the help of geese?

There have been some welcome headlines in the news lately.

In the US at least, people seem to be taking to the skies again. One US major almost tripled its scheduled flights in June when compared to the lowest points of the Covid pandemic.

When it comes to airplanes in storage and furloughed pilots, as we’ve mentioned before, the industry has inertia. For a bunch of reasons, that big ol’ wheel can’t just start turning the minute we can get bums on seats. And the cracks are already beginning to show (no pun intended).

That same US major also had to cancel nearly one thousand flights recently due to staff shortages. Part of the problem was that a number of its pilots were still dusting off their stripes in post-furlough training.

The point is that renewed desire for travel is likely to (hopefully) one day soon outpace how quickly employers can get their pilots back in the sky. Is it possible that in this eagerness to get us flying again employers may overlook the mental health and wellbeing of their pilots?

Or in other words, even if they are ready for us to return to the flight deck, are we?

Aviation workers were among the hardest hit during the pandemic. And it wasn’t just pilots – cabin crew, air traffic controllers, engineers and other aviation professionals were left facing redundancy, loss of livelihood and financial stress. This was then combined with all of the other sufferings that Covid created in our lives.

It’s no surprise then, that one study found they suffered substantially more during the pandemic than the general population did. Is it then naive to think then that we’re all mentally match-fit to get back in the game?

When you combine that with an immediate need to be employed again along with reluctance to speak out about mental health for fear of loss of medical is it time that employers take a moment to make sure their staff are fit to fly in other ways?

And it’s not just about pilots who lost their jobs either – those who kept theirs faced pay cuts, downgrades and constant anxiety about job security. Then there is the constant testing, fear of catching Covid, and time away from family in isolation. In fact it’s a fairly safe bet that almost all pilots have had a lot on their minds over the past eighteen months.

In Aug 2020, BA pilots voted to accept a deal that included job losses and pay cuts to avoid a larger number of redundancies.

It’s a stressful business.

And it’s no secret. In fact, another study recently found that airline pilots have the third most stressful job in the US. And that was before Covid…

When it comes to what causes stress, there’s actually a widely accepted measure. Just google Holmes-Rahe – according to it, here are some of the biggest things that stress us out the most (and we’re talking life-changing here): loss of employment, change in financial state and default on debt all feature in the top twenty, and that’s ignoring the more personal problems that those issues have a tendency to create. Covid pandemic anyone?

The point is that by the time we get back to the skies, we’ve already been through a number of factors that cause chronic and prolonged stress. Unlike short term stress, it’s just not that easy to shake off. Even the toughest and most resilient among us will in some way carry that with them into the flight deck.

Here’s the bottom line: All of the hazards that were there before Covid will still be there. But our resilience to deal with them will be reduced. And that means risk.

The problem of stress in the cockpit.

Although a little stress can be beneficial by making us more alert and task-orientated, the human body isn’t designed to cope with chronic stress. For pilots it is well known to negatively affect our cockpit performance and increase our proneness to poor decision making, bad judgement, loss of situational awareness and confusion – all of which can be dangerous up there.

At its most basic level it can make us us feel irritable, fatigued and disengaged which can lead to a break down in monitoring or communication with other crew members.

Although the effects of stress may not be obvious when things are ops normal, they can greatly reduce our capacity to deal with whatever might be thrown at us when something goes wrong. This accident serves as a good example.

If not dealt with, chronic stress can also lead to more serious mental health problems such as anxiety and depression.

So, what needs to be done?

Because of the ongoing pandemic, pilot mental health and wellbeing is arguably more of an issue now than ever before. We need to prioritise wellbeing as part of our recovery plan and it really is a shared responsibility.

Employers need to do provide more support to their staff. Mental health awareness training, access to counselling and peer support programs should become common place. The positive impact of other lifestyle changes on the job such as flexible rostering, better crew pairing options and more time off shouldn’t be overlooked either.

And most importantly the inconvenience and cost of these things should not be prioritised over safety.

From an industry perspective we need to continue to de-stigmatise mental health problems and encourage openness so that pilots with wellbeing issues have the confidence to step forward and acknowledge their problems without fear of loss of job or medical. Regulations need to be improved to allow this.

Pilots themselves have a role to play too, particularly not to underestimate how much underlying stress can affect your performance at the controls and how you interact with your other crew. It’s important to self-diagnose and recognise the signs. There are a bunch of steps you can take both physically and mentally that can help you overcome it.

Getting back to a ‘new’ normal. 

As people take to the skies again and borders begin to reopen it’s important to remember that pilot mental health can have a big effect on safety. And considering what we’ve all been through it’s worth taking a moment to make sure the industry is doing enough to address it.

In that way we have a chance to use Covid as a catalyst for positive change even when the pandemic is one day far behind us.

More places to look.

ICAO Mental Health Working Group . They’ve been active throughout the pandemic and are doing a lot of work on the psychological effects that Covid is having on pilots.

Cleared for Takeoff. A handy and easy to read guide on how you can prepare mentally and physically for return to flying.

Article photo courtesy @vlkvojtech

There are several reports that amidst the events surrounding the forced diversion of Ryanair Flight 4978 to Belarus last month, at least one MiG-29 was scrambled to intercept and escort the 737 to Minsk airport.

While military interceptions of civilian airliners are very rare, they can happen and for serious reasons. Which poses an important question – if a jet were to appear off your wing tip tomorrow, would you know what to do?

Each interception is potentially hazardous which is why ICAO publish rules and procedures (Annex 2) that both military and civilian aircraft should be following to minimise the risk. Each state is responsible for its own airspace, but where possible they should be following ICAO’s guidelines. For crew this includes knowing the actions to be taken and the visual signals to be used.

Here’s a break-down of what you need to know.

Why do they happen?

ICAO are very specific – an interception should be avoided and only used as a last resort. ATC must try and establish communications with you first. The primary reason is that they haven’t been able to talk to you.

There are lots of simple reasons why this can happen – usually a wrong frequency or perhaps they’ve forgotten to hand you over. In this instance they will try and contact you on 121.5 (which is one reason we monitor Guard), or via another aircraft. If that fails, ATC have a problem. You’re flying through their airspace and you’re not talking. It is not clear what is happening on board.

Incapacitation is a biggie, the crew may have fallen asleep or perhaps something more serious has happened as Helios 522 tragically reminds us. Or the aircraft may have been hijacked. Either way, they need to get someone up there to check things out.

When the crew of Helios 522 stop answering on the radio, two F-16 jets were scrambled to try and make contact. Courtesy: Alan Lebeda

What will they want us to do?

One of three things, depending on what the problem is. They’ll either want to identify you, communicate with you or re-direct you. The latter may be because you have strayed off-course or busted some kind of restricted airspace. Far less often it is because authorities may believe you are involved with illegal activity (such as drug smuggling) or or you are for some reason hazardous to other aircraft.

The Interception Manoeuvre.

ICAO have a standard procedure for military aircraft to follow to minimise startle factor for you and decrease collision risk. A standard interception will take place in three phases, here’s how it works.

Phase I.

Intercepting aircraft should approach you from astern (behind). They will disable pressure reporting on their transponders – not to hide from you, but to avoid triggering a nuisance RA. They should still be visible on your TCAS but only as a TA. The lead aircraft will take up a position on the left, ahead and slightly above at a distance so as not to cause startle and to be clearly visible to the captain. It is likely there will be an accompanying aircraft which will remain behind you throughout. They will be trying to contact you on guard frequency (121.5) using the callsign ‘INTERCEPTOR’ or ‘INTERCEPT CONTROL.’

Phase II.

The lead aircraft will close slowly with you but not closer than needed to establish communications. All other aircraft will remain well clear of you.

Phase III.

What happens next depends on the situation. If they have finished their interception (they have identified you, re-established your comms with ATC or understand your intentions) they will perform a break away procedure to clear you.

Or they may need to divert or re-route you. In which case they will remain in position and clearly visible at all times.

The lead plane will take up position on your left, ahead and slightly above. Courtesy: Swiss International Airlines. 

What you need to do in the flight deck.

Stay calm. You’ll likely be startled. Slow it down and remember the following:

• Notify ATC (if possible). Make sure you have 121.5 active, the volume turned up and that your headset or speaker is working. Try and establish contact with them. Listen out for the callsigns above.
• Select Mode A on your transponder and squawk 7700 (unless ATC tell you otherwise). If you have ADS-B or ADS-C onboard, select the appropriate emergency function.
• Communicate (more on that below).

How do we talk to them?

The primary way they will want to talk to you will be in plain English on 121.5.

If they can’t raise you on that, they will use visual signals which is why they need to get so close to you.

There are ICAO standard signals used across most member states (including the US) that you need to know (or at least know how to find quickly). Here’s how they work:

When they want you to land.

If they can’t talk to you and want you back down on the ground they will direct you to an airport, turn on their landing lights, lower their gear and begin to circle.

If you intend to land you should lower your own gear and land. If the airport is inadequate, you should continue to circle 1000 – 2000ft, raise your gear and flash your landing lights until your escort re-directs you some place else.

What about if their instructions contradict someone else’s?

According to ICAO, if you receive contradictory instructions from other sources you should continue to comply with those from the intercepting aircraft.

Their duty of care.

You have to do as you’re told, but they should be looking after you. ICAO are very clear that nothing can be done during interceptions to unnecessarily put your aircraft or its passengers at undue risk. So, when they are requiring you to land, it is important to know they must take care to ensure your safety.

Firstly, they should not divert you to an airfield which is unsafe for your aircraft type. For civil aircraft this means the runway must be equivalent to at least 2,500m long at sea level, and have a bearing strength that is strong enough. The surrounding terrain must be suitable to allow for a safe approach and missed approach.

They must also take steps to ensure that you have sufficient fuel and if possible the airport they want you to land at is published in the relevant AIP.

Finally, they should give you sufficient time to prepare for the landing, including giving the crew a chance to check landing performance and brief.

Should I be worried about being shot at?

Seeing a fighter on your wing is an intimidating sight. But the use of weapons is very unlikely, especially if you are complying with instructions or are obviously unable to respond. ICAO have asked all contracting states for a commitment that all measures will be taken to refrain from the use of weapons (including to attract attention) as they endanger the lives and safety of everyone on board. However, that’s not to say they can’t be used. So the best defence is always to follow instructions.

Military interception of a civil aircraft is extremely rare.

While the diversion and alleged interception of Ryanair last month raises valid concerns throughout the aviation community it is important to remember that ICAO’s procedures have been designed to minimise risk across a broad range of scenarios. It’s important that we stay aware of them and how to apply them.